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ESSAY 


ON       THE 


NATURAL    EQUALITY     OF    MEN; 

ON 

THE  RIGHTS  THAT  RESULT  FROM  IT,   AND 
ON  THE  DUTIES   WHICH   IT   IMPOSES  : 


To  which  a  SILVER  MEDAL  was  adjudged  by  the  TEYLERIAN 
SOCIETY  at  HAARLEM,  April,  179a. 

CORRECT EL^itnd  ENLARGED. 

By   WILLIAM   LAWRENCE   BROWN,    D.  D. 

PROFESSOR    OF   MORAL   PHILOSOPHY,    AND   THE 

LAW  OF  NATURE,  AND  OF  ECCLESI ASTI  CAL 

HISTORY  ;    AND  MINISTER  OF  THE 

ENGLISH  CHURCH  AT  UTRECHT. 


Aliquid  femper  ad  communem  ut'ditatem  ajferendum.      Cicero. 


THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


J- £4-0  Z 


PHILADELPHIA 
HN  ORMROD,  by  WILLIAM  V 
AT  FRANKLIN'S  HEAD,  NO.41,   CHESNUT- STREET- 

f793- 


j    Printed  for  JOHN  ORMROD,  by  WILLIAM  W.  WOODWARD, 


PREFACE. 


Wi 


HOEVER  has  attentively  confidered 
the  feries  of  queftions  propofed  for  public  dif- 
cuflion  by  the  Teylerian  Society,  will  acknow- 
ledge that  they  have  ufually  had  the  peculiar  ad- 
vantage of  uniting  curious  inveftigation  with  ge- 
neral utility.  But,  of  all  the  queftions  propofed 
by  this,  or  by  any  literary  fociety  whatever,  none 
appears  either  of  greater  confequence  in  itfelf,  or 
from  the  complexion  of  the  times,  more  likely  to 
excite  attention,  than  that  which  is  now  offered 
by  this  refpectable  body,  as  the  fubject  of  compe- 
tition for  the  literary  honour  which  they  annually 
confer.  It  directly  leads  to  examine  the  princi- 
pal foundations  of  civil  fociety,  to  unfold  the 
chief  obligations  of  all  focial  duties,  to  eftablifh 
the  important  advantages  of  fubordination,  on 
the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  to  guard  againft 
the  dreadful  and  odious  confequences  both  of  def- 
potifm  and  of  anarchy.  Such  are  the  momentous 
confiderations  necefTarily  connected  with  the  pro- 
per difcuflion  of  this  queftion;  the  propofal  of 
A* 


(     iv     ) 

which  does  equal  honour  to  the  difcernment  and 
public  fpirit  of  the  worthy  directors  of  the  Tey- 
lerian  inftitution.  Happy  may  the  perfon  account 
himfelf.  and  juftly  will  he  be  entitle^  to  the  thanks 
of  his  fellow  men,  who  mall  be  enabled  to  treat 
this  fubjecl  in  any  manner  adequate  to  its  real 
confequence  and  dignity.  Far,  indeed,  is  the 
writer  of  this  Effay  from  prefuming  to  lay  claim, 
to  this  praife,  but  he  feels  his  heart  imprefled  by 
the  importance  of  the  f  ubjecl:,  and  animated  with 
a  warm  defire  of  contributing  to  the  public  good 
that  portion  which  his  fmall  abilities  may  permit. 
Ever  fince  he  was  capable  of  any  rational  reflec- 
tion, he  has  found  his  foul  actuated  by  the  facred 

flame  of  Liberty,  py  2&  SHnkCqi  2iq$:z%zz, 

and  by  that  love  of  juftice  which  dictates  an  equal 
enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  of  human  nature. 
The  grand  principle  of  the  natural  equality  of 
men,  if  rightly  underftood,  is  the  only  bafis  on 
which  univerfal  juftice,  order,  and  freedom,  can 
be  firmly  built,  and  permanently  fecured.  The 
view  exhibited  in  this  EfTay,  fo  far  from  loofening 
the  bands  of  fociety,  or  weakening  that  fubordi- 
nation,  without  which  no  government  can  fubfift, 
will  draw  more  clofely  every  focial  tie,  and  more 
ftrongly  confirm  the  obligations  of  legal  obedi- 
ence, and  the  rights  of  legal  authority. 

The  writer  is  fufficiently  aware  that  the  prin- 


(     v     ) 

dples  which  he  attempts  to  unfold,  will  not  be  a. 
greeable  either  to  the  wild  enthufiafts  for  liberty, 
or  to  the  fervile  and  tyrannical  abettors  of  arbi- 
trary  power.  That  moderation,  which  flows 
from  the  love  and  the  perception  of  truth  (which 
commonly  lies  between  two  extremes)  is  feldom 
acceptable  to  the  multitude,  who,  incapable  of 
diftinguifhing  the  ufe  from  the  abufe  of  things, 
are  generally  as  extravagant  and  impetuous  in 
the  maintenance  of  right,,  as  in  the  abetment  of 
wrong.  It  is  only  the  few,  who  have  fhaken  off 
the  fhackles  of  prejudice,  difpelled  the  clouds  of 
paffion,  and  bur  ft  from  the  dungeon  in  which 
they  confine  the  foul,  that  can  view  and  relim  ob- 
jects as  they  appear  in  the  pure  and  fteady  light 
in  which  na  ture  exhibits  them.  The  eyes  of  the 
reft  of  mankind  are  either  too  weak  to  fuftain  its 
luftre,  or,  if  they  have  beheld  it  for  fome  time, 
become  fo  much  dazzled  as  to  lofe  fight  of  the  ob- 
jects which  it  is  defigned  to  unfold  to  them,  and 
are  thus  deprived  .of  that  direction  in  conduct 
which  it  ought  to  afford.  Of  the  truth  of  this 
affertion,  the  times  in  which  we  live  furnim  abun- 
dant and  melancholy  examples. 

Since  the  generality  of  mankind,  then,  will  e- 
ver  be  in  extremes,  and  the  wifer  few,  if  they 
keep  themfelves  free  from  the  contagion  of  po~ 

a3 


(     vi     ) 

pular  prejudice  and  paflion,  will,  from  tliis  very 
circumftance,  feldom  acquire  any  great  influence 
over  the  general  conduct;  it  may  be  afked,  of 
what  ufe  can  fuch  writings  be,  which  the  multi- 
tude will  either  not  read,  or  not  apply  to  profit, 
and  the  more  intelligent  do  not  require  ?  To  this 
queftion  the  anfwer  is  obvious : — that  the  progrefs 
of  truth  is  fure,  though  flow  ;  that,  if  every  per- 
ibn  of  difcernment  and  moderation  would  confi- 
der  it  as  his  duty  to  communicate,  as  far  as  his 
iphere  may  extend,  the  light  he  himfelf  has  ac- 
quired, a  great  deal  of  good  might  at  laft  be  ac- 
complished ;  and  that  to  contribute  any  portion, 
however  fmall,  to  the  common  benefit,  is  both  a 
fufficient  motive  and  a  fufficient  reward  to  a  bene- 
volent and  generous  mind.  The  human  foul  is  for- 
med for  truth  and  virtue.  Error,  prejudice,  and  de- 
pravity, are  unnatural  ftates.  Superftition  and  bi- 
gotry, popular  frenzy,  or  defpotic  oppreffion,  ne- 
ver can  be  defined  by  the  Supreme  Director  of  the 
world  to  hold  a  perpetual  reign,  becaufe  they 
counteract  his  wife  and  benevolent  defigns.  The 
paiTions,  and  tlie  consequent  agitations  which  they 
excite,  as  they  are  violent,  can  never  be  lafting, 
and,  from  their  very  violence  itfelf,  tend,  by  a 
ipecies  of  fermentation,  to  throw  off  the  dregs 
of  ignorance  and  folly,  which  obftruct  the  im- 
provement of  our  fpecies.  Thefe  convulfions  may 


(     vii     ) 

be  compared  to  tempefts  and  hurricanes  which  o*- 
vercaft  the  fl;y  with  a  temporary  gloom,  and  of- 
ten occafion  the  moft  dreadful  calamities  ;  but, 
in  the  end,  refine  the  atmofphere,  and  preferve 
its  falubrity.  It  is  more  natural  to  fuppofe  that 
the  progrefs  of  the  world  is  towards  improvement 
and  perfection,  than,  as  gloomy  but  contracted 
minds  are  apt  to  fancy,  towards  degeneracy  and 
ruin.  Even  the  final  deflruction  of  this  globe, 
which  Scripture  teaches  us  to  expect,  will  only 
ferve  to  introduce  a  more  perfect  and  glorious 
fcene.  The  times  in  which  we  live,  though  agi- 
tated with  violent  convulfions,  and  marked  by 
ftriking  events,  are  peculiarly  favourable  to  rati- 
onal inquiry  and  to  fubftantial  improvement.  On 
the  public  affairs  of  the  world,  it  has  often  been 
faid,  that  the  fpeculations  of  philofophers  in  their 
clofets  have  but  little  influence.  But  fuch  an 
opinion  can  be  adopted  by  thofe  only  who  are  as 
great  Grangers  to  experience  as  they  are  to  fpe- 
culation.  The  conduct  of  men  is  commonly  direc- 
ted by  their  opinions.  Their  opinions  are  formed 
by  their  principles ;  their  principles,  by  the  in- 
ftrucxion  which  they  receive,  by  the  books  which 
they  read,  by  the  company  which  they  frequent. 
Hence  it  is  eafy  to  fee  how  far  the  public  opinions 
and  conduct  muft,  in  a  literary  age,  be  affected  by 
the  writings  that  appear  in  it.  If  thefe  are  dicta- 


(   viii   ) 

ted  by  foundnefs  of  judgment,  and  benignity  of 
heart,  they  cannot  fail  of  producing  much  bene- 
fit. 

The  time,  therefore,  and  pains  employed  in  fpe- 
culations  fuch  as  are  fuggefted  by  the  important 
queftion  I  now  propofe  to  difcufs,  cannot  be  mif- 
fpent,  if  the  fubject  is  treated  with  any  tolerable 
degree  of  accuracy  and  precifion.  Even  thofe 
who  fail  of  fuccefs  may  ftill  claim  the  honour  of 
a  laudable  attempt*  and  from  men  of  fuch  judg- 
ment and  candour  as  characterise  thofe  to  whom 
I  have  the  honour  of  addrefling  this  difcourfe,  are 
fure  of  obtaining  it.  Without  detaining  the  at- 
tention of  my  candid  readers  any  longer  from  the 
immediate  confideration  of  the  queftion  now  before 
them,  I  mall  directly  proceed  to  examine  it.  As 
it  ftands  propofed  by  the  Society,  it  divides  itfelf 
into  three  parts  : 

I.  In  what  refpe&s  may  men  be  faid  to  be  e- 
qual  ? 

IL  What  are  the  rights  refulting  from  this  §- 
quality  ? 

III.  What  are  the  duties  which  it  impofes? 


^^^^'J^^^^^^^^^'^^i^i^:^^^^^^^^ 


AN 


E    S    S    A    Y,    &c. 


BOOK     I. 


$^^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


A  N 

ESSAY,     &c. 

BOOK      I. 

In  what  Senfc  may  all  Men  be  J aid  to  be  Equal  > 


CHAPTER      I. 

Of  Satural  diversities  among  Men. 

X  H  A  T  all  men  are,  by  nature,  equal,  is  an 
opinion  fo  generally  received  among  thofe  who 
are  accuftomed  to  any  degree  of  philofophical  re- 
flection, that  to  call  it  in  queftion  might  appear 
abfurd,  and  to  prove  it  fuperfluous.  Yet,  this 
opinion,  like  many  general  maxims  which  obtain 
a  currency  in  the  world,  however  true  it  may  be, 
in  its  proper  fenfe,  is  not,  I  am  inclined  to  believe, 
of  the  greateft  part,  fufficiently  founded  according 
to  the  acceptation  of  thofe  who  admit  it.  If  itisun- 
derftood  in  any  fenfe,  exclufive  of  all  natural  fupe- 
riority  and  diftinftion  among  men,  it  will  be  found 
to  contradicluniverfal  experience.  At  whatever  pe- 


(     14     ) 

riod  of  human  life,  in  whatever  ftate  or  condition 
of  fociety,  we  contemplate  our  fpecies,  we  fhall  find 
that  nature  has  diftinguifhed  individuals  from  each 
other,  by  peculiar  and  appropriate  qualities,  al- 
moft  as  remarkably,  in  fome  inftances,  as  fhe  has 
diftinguifhed  the  human  race  from  the  inferior 
creatures.  Thofe  philofophers,  who,  in  order  to 
exalt  themfelves,  attempt  to  degrade  their  fpe- 
cies, and  difplay  their  eloquence  by  defending  the 
moil  irrational  paradoxes,  are  eager  to  perfuade 
us  that,  as  human  nature,  in  its  original  Hate,  is 
on  a  level  with  the  brutes,  lb  individuals  among 
mankind  derive  every  difference  of  corporeal  and 
mental  perfection  that  characterizes  them,  wholly 
from  the  opportunities  of  improvement  which 
they  have  enjoyed,  or  from  the  happy  fituations 
in  which  they  have  been  placed.  Contradicting 
univerfal  experience,  they  ftrive  to  refer  the 
judgments  which  it  eftablifkes,  to  the  clafs  of  po- 
pular prejudices  ;  and,  pretending  to  lead  us  to 
the  true  knowledge  of  human  nature,  exhibit  to 
our  view  a  ftate  of  brutifh  ignorance,  and  of  favage 
ferocity,  which  has  never  exifted  but  in  their  own 
imaginations.  They  carry  us  back  to  a  period  of 
which  there  are  no  monuments,  and  in  which 
they  confider  man  not  as  afocial,  but  as  a  folitary 
animal,  actuated  by  mere  animal  inftincts,  defti- 
tute  of  ideas,  a   mere  quadruped  grazing  along 


(     13     ) 

with  the  brutes,  and  as  little  diftinguiihed  from 
the  reft  of  his  fpeciesby  individual  qualities,  as  his 
fpeciesfrom  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  foreft. 
In  order  to  eftablifh  this  theory,  fo  difgraceful  to 
human  nature,  they  produce  certain  relations  of 
travellers,  concerning  Pongos,  and  Enjokos,  and 
Ourang-Outangs,  whom  they  conclude  to  be  pri- 
mitive men,  whofe  conduct  and  mode  of  life  can 
alone  furnifh  us  with  juft  reprefentations  of  our 
original  condition*-  So  eafy  is  it,  when  a  favour- 
ite opinion  is  to  be  maintained,  or  a  paradox 
eftablifhed,  to  adopt,  as  principles,  judgments  de- 
stitute of  all  evidence,  and  to  reject  principles 
fancTioned  by  univerfal  confent.  So  apt  are  the 
enemies  of  fyflem,  to  run  into  fy  Items  of  their 
own,  whofe  fole  recommendation  is  Angularity, 
-while  ingenious  fophiftry  is  their  only  fupport. 

Thofe  writers  feem  not  to  have  reflected,  that, 
if  man  was  originally  a  brute,  he  muft  ever  have 
continued  fo  ;  and  that  that  inftincl,  which  folely 
they  allow  to  him  in  that  fituation,  if  it  is  unerr- 


*  See  Rouff;au,  fur  l'origlne  et  les  fondemen3  de  l'inega- 
lite  parmi  les  hommcs.  Note  ioth.  This  fidion  appears  to 
be  opied  from  ancient  writer*.— — See  Lucretius,  1.  v.  verfe 
9*3.  Horace,  f'erm.  lib.  1.  Sat.  3,  verfe  98.  Cicero  fro 
Sextio,  c.  4Z,  De  inventione,  lib.  1.  c.  2.  La&ant.  div.  inft. 
lib.  6.  c.  10.    Hobbes  de  cive,  c.  viii.  fe&ion   1. 

B 


(     14     ) 

ing  within  its  prefcribed  compafs,  never  can,  by 
any  improvement,  be  carried  one. ftep  beyond  its 
primitive  limits.  That  capacity  cf  perfection, 
which  they  grant  to  him,  as  his  only  diftinction 
above  the  inferior  animals,  implies,  in  its  very  na- 
ture, more  elevated  and  extenfive  powers,  than 
any  of  thefe  can  polTeis.  To  deny  this,  is  to  af- 
fert,  that  a  building  may  be  erected  without  a 
foundation,  an  elegant  and  beautiful  form  exhibit- 
ed without  original  materials,  an  effect  produced 
without  a  caufe.  Thefe  writers  feem  to  overlook 
the  whole  analogy  of  nature,  in  which  every  fpe- 
cies  is  diftinguiflied  from  every  other,  by.proper- 
ties  common  to  all  of  the  fame  ctafs,  while  all  the 
individuals  of  each  fpecies  are  characterized  by 
their  peculiar  qualities.  It  would  be  equally  ab- 
furd  to  think  of  forming  a  man  out  of  a  brute,  as 
to  imagine  that  a  fifh  may  be  transformed  into  a 
quadruped. 

Tliofe,  however,  who  feek  not  fame,  but  wit 
dom,  not  brilliancy,  but  truth,  will,  in  all  their 
enquiries  concerning  human  nature,  take  the  hu- 
man fpecies,  as  they  find  it  exhibited,  in  its  various 
forms,  by  daily  obfervation,  by  the  incorrupted 
records  of  Hiftory,  and  by  the  authentic  relations 
of  travellers.  Beyond  thefe  fources  of  in  forma- 
tion they  will  not  pretend  to  go  in  queft  of  ftates 


(     >5    ) 

x5f  human  nature,  which  are  only  to  be  found  in 
the  pictures  of  poets,  or  in  the  hypothefes  of  phi- 
loibphers  equally  fanciful  ;  and  they  will  confide r 
it  as  no  lefs  ridiculous  for  any  one  to  philolbphife 
on  man  with  an  Ourang-Gutang  before  him,  than 
it  would  be  for  a  perfon,  attempting  to  determine 
the  qualities  of  gold,  to  reject  an  undoubted  piece 
of  that  metal,  and  begin  his  experiments  with  a 
piece  of  pinchbeck.  For,  as  a  ftatue,  however 
elegantly  finiihed,  ftill  contains  the  rude  mafs  cf 
marble,  on  which  fo  much  fymetry  and  beauty  has 
been  fuperinduced  ;  fo,  man,  in  the  mofl  civilized 
ilate  of  fociety,  ftill  retains  the  original  principles 
of  his  nature  on  which  all  the  various  modifica- 
tions he  has  undergone,  have  been  ingrafted.  It 
is  the  bulinefs  of  the  philofopher  to  difcover  thefe 
amidft  all  the  adventitious  circumftances  with 
which  they  may  be  connected,  or  the  various 
ihapes  and  colourings  which  they  may  have  afTum- 
ed.  No  human  purfuit,  no  human  inftitution,  no 
human  enjoyment,  no  human  corruption  itfelf, 
but  may  be  ultimately  referred  to  fome  original 
principle  of  our  nature  ;  and  without  thele  origin- 
al principles,  it  is  impoffible  to  account  for  the 
power  of  education,  of  habit,  and  of  example. 
If,  laying  afide  all  regard  to  imaginary  ftates  of 
human  nature,  in  which  none  of  the  principles, 
which  now  fo  powerfully  influence  our  fpecies, 
B2 


(     >6     ) 

are  fappofed  to  have  unfolded  themfelves,  we  fix 
cur  attention  on  mankind  as  they  are  exhibite-d  to- 
ns in  hifiory,  and  by  daily  chfervation,  there  is 
one  important  fact,  which  muft  occur  to  every 
one  endowed  with  the  fmalleft  reflection.  This 
fact,  on  which  I  mean  chiefly  to  found  my  reafon- 
ings  on  the  whole  of  this  fubjecl,  is,  that,  how- 
ever fimilar  the  fpecies  may  be  fn  general,  an  infi- 
nite diverilty  of  abilities,  talent?,  and  character^, 
obtains  among  the  individuals  that  compofe  it. 

This  diverilty  is  evident  with  regard  both  to, 
the  body,'  and  to  the  mind.  In  ibme,  we  behold 
great  bodily  flrength  and  dexterity,  and  a  pecu- 
liar aptitude  for  mechanical  operations,  and  for 
rapid  and  powerful  movements.  In  others,  the 
powers  of  imagination  confpicuoufly  unfold  them- 
ftives  ;  while  judgment,  acutenefs,  penetration, 
and  fagacity,  in  the  conduct  of  life,  diftinguifh 
another  clafs  of  men.  An  uncommon  clearness 
and  energy  of  intellect,  and  an  aptitude  for  the 
abftract  fciences,  raife  others  above  the  common 
level.  Some  have  an  aftonifhing  faculty  of 
perfualion,  of  addrefs,  and  management  in  mov- 
ing the  affection?,  and  influencing  the  conduct  of 
their  fellow  men. 

Nor  is  this  diverfity  lefs  remarkable  in  the  mo- 
ral qualities  of  men,  than  in  their  corporeal  and 


(      n     ) 

intellectual  powers.  Some  have  a  wonderful 
command  of  their  own  paflions,  and  can  prefervc 
their  moderation  and  compofure  of  foul  amidft  the 
greateft  provocations,  and  the  molt  trying  cala- 
mities ;  others  are  deprived  of  all  felf  government 
by  the  flighted:  adverlity,  or  by  the  fmalleft  oppo- 
fition.  Some  natures  are  extremely  fympathetic, 
and  eafily  moved  by  the  diftreffes  of  their  fellow 
men  ;  while  others  difcover  an  aftonifhing  infen- 
fibility  with  regard  not  only  to  the  afflictions  of 
other  perfons,  but  even  to  their  own.  Benevo- 
lence, and  all  the  gentle  and  amiable  qualities 
which  accompany  it,  peculiarly  diftinguifh  fome 
characters,  while  fortitude  and  magnanimity,  and 
all  the  ftern  and  awful  virtues,  are  the  leading  fea- 
tures of  fome  elevated  fpirits.  Not  to  mention 
the  characteriftical  marks  of  ambition,  avarice, 
voluptuoufnefs,  indolence,  or  vanity,  which  diver- 
fify  fuch  a  number  of  individuals,  it  is  certain  that 
the  moral  complexion  of  men  is  as  various  as  their 
corporeal  conffitution,  or  their  mental  faculties^ 
and  perhaps  is  greatly  influenced  by  both. 

Nor  can  it  be  alledged,  that  thefe  diftinctions 
of  character  are  entirely  derived  from  the  pre  fen  t 
ftate  of  fociety,  and  from  different  opportunities 
of  cultivation  ;  and  by  no  means  referable  to  any 
original  bent  of  nature-  This  conclulion  will  not 
B3 


(      i8     ) 

be  authorifed  either  by  the  inclusions  of  reafon, 
or  by  experience.  For,  in  the  firft  place,  it  is 
hard  to  be  conceived  how  any  combination  of  cir- 
rumftances,  or  any  influence  of  education  and 
habit,  can  produce  any  power  or  propenfity,  of 
which  the  original  feeds  have  not  been  dropped 
into  the  conftitution  by  the  hand  of  the  Creator. 
A.11  that  fituation  and  opportunity  can  effectuate, 
is  to  furnifh  thefe  inherent  powers  and  propenfi- 
ties,  with  the  means  of  unfolding  themfelves,  of 
increafmg  in  vigour,  and  of  acquiring  maturity. 
If  they  are  entirely  wanting,  they  will  never  be 
implanted  by  any  effort  of  human  {kill,  or  be 
brought  into  action,  by  any  favourable  combina- 
tion of  circumftances.  If  they  exift  in  any  degree, 
however  fniall,  opportunity,  exercife  and  cultiva- 
tion, will  advance  them  to  a  pitch  of  ftrength  fo 
greatly  above  their  primitive  condition,  as  will 
have  the  appearance  of  a  real  creation.  If  we  at- 
tend to  the  fact  itfelf,  it  muft  be  evident  that 
children  and  favages,  who  have  received  no  in- 
struction, fhow  varieties  of  character,  as  well  as 
men  who  have  enjoyed  all  the  advantages  of  po- 
iilhed  fociety,  and  who  move  in  its  different 
fpheres.  Although  a  pronenefs  to  imitation  is 
iniverfally  predominant  in  childhood,  yet  the 
nanner  of  imitating,  and  the  objects  to  which  it  is 
tirected,  are  infinitely  diverfiiied.     Asfcon  as  the 


(     '9     ) 

faculties  begin  to  unfold,  all  the  paflions  and  pro- 
pensities that  belong  to  human  nature  impercepti- 
bly arife,  and,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other 
of  thefe  is  moft  prevalent,  chara&eriftical  features 
diftinguifh  the  infant.  The  objects  that  engage 
the  attention  of  the  favage,  and  the  defires  that 
animate  his  purfuits,  are  indeed  few,  in  compari- 
fon  of  thofe  that  exift  in  more  polifhed  ftates  of 
fociety.  Yet,  as  thefe  concentrate  his  whole 
foul,  fo  they  excite  its  energies  the  more  power- 
fully within  their  limited  compafs,  and  confpire 
the  more  fpeedily  to  form  his  character.  In  the 
favage  ftate,  the  genuine  impulfes  and  propenfities 
of  nature  are  freely  allowed  to  appear,  and,  col- 
lected in  one  point,  exert  themfelves  with  the 
greater  vigor,  and  give  to  each  individual  that 
peculiar  complexion  which  refults  from  the  pecu- 
liar ftrength  of  his  native  powers*.  The  multi- 
plicity of  objects  which  attract  attention,  and  fti- 
mulate  activity  in  more  poliihed  periods  of  fociety, 
prevent  a  character  from  being  fo  fpeedily  form- 
ed :  while  the  uniform  inftitutions  of  civilized 
life,  mould  all  the  members  of  the  community 
to  mutual  refemblance,  and  contribute  to  efface 
thofe    prominent    and    characteriftical    features., 


*  See  Robertfon's  Hiftory  of  America,   and    Raynars  Hi- 
ftoire  Philofophique  et  Politique  pijfim. 


(    ao    ) 

which  the  hand  of  nature  hasimpreffed.  I  mean 
not  to  afTert  that  thofe  diverfuies  of  talents  and 
character  are  wholly  to  be  afcribed  to  the  unaflift- 
ed  powers  of  nature,  but  only  that  they  prevail 
in  the  joint  proportion  of  thefe  powers,  and  of 
the  circumftances  that  call  them  into  exercife.  As 
the  fire  will  foon  be  extinguifhed,  if  not  conftantly 
fed  by  combuftibles,  and  as  thefe  combuftibles, 
however  multiplied,  will  not  produce  flame,  and 
light,  and  heat,  unlefs  they  are  kindled  ;  ib  the 
human  faculties,  if  never  called  into  action  by 
correfponding  lituations,  will  remain  torpid  and 
inefficacious  ;  and  the  moft  favourable  concur- 
rence of  circumftances  will  not  produce  genius, 
dexterity,  fagacity,  and  virtue,  if  the  original 
feeds  of  all  thefe  qualities  are  totally  wanting. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  incontrovertible  that  there 
is,  among  the  various  individuals  that  compofe 
the  human  fpecie6,  an  almoft  infinite  diverfity  of 
abilities,  temper,  and  character. 

From  this  circumftance  a  natural  Inequality 
rnuft  neceflarily  arife.  Thofe  talents  and  difpofi- 
tions,  which  are  the  moft  amiable  and  refpectable, 
directly  point  out  their  poflefibrs  as  the  objects  of 
love  and  efteem.  Wherever  fuch  qualities  appear 
it  is  as  impoffible  for  the  hunnn  mind,  unlefs  it 
be  moft  deplorably  depraved,  to  withhold  its  ad- 


(      21      , 

miration  and  affection,  as  it  would  be  for  any  na» 
tural  caufe  not  to  produce  its  effect:  when  placed 
in  circumftances  adapted  to  its  operation.  Every 
difplay  of  genius,  of  fagacity,  of  penetration,  and 
prudence,  is  calculated  to  excite  the  admiration 
of  the  beholders,  to  afford  thein  pleaiure,  and  if 
beneficently  directed,  to  demand  their  gratitude. 
Fortitude,  magnanimity  and  generofity,  command 
veneration,  and  excite  efteem.  Gentlenefs,  mo- 
deration, kindnefs,  and  companion,  appearing  as 
the  diftinguiihing  features  in  any  character,  can- 
not fail  to  attract  the  love  and  complacency  of  all 
to  whom  they  are  known.  Even  corporeal  ftrength 
and  dexterity  procure  a  certain  degree  of  refpect 
to  their  poflefTors,  on  account  of  their  utility  in 
life  both  to  others  and  to  themfelves. 

It  is  equally  certain,  that  refpect,  efteem,  ve- 
neration and  love,  enfure  to  thofe  who  are  the 
objects  of  them,  a  very  high  degree  of  influence 
over  the  reft  of  mankind.  Such  will  be  liitened 
to,  imitated,  and  obeyed,  by  all  who  are  capable 
of  eftimating  the  qualities  above  mentioned  ac- 
cording to  their  real  merit;  the  Inure  which  they 
fhed  around  the'r  poffeffors  dazzles  thofe  whofe 
fouls  are  lefs  difcerning  and  elevated  •  and  even 
the  ftupid  and  the  bafe  are  constrained  to  pay  an 
involuntary  homage.     That  fuch  qualities  are  the, 


(  fc  ) 

only  original  fources  of  power  and  influence,  is 
evident  from  the  conduct  of  all  who  afpire  at  ac- 
quiring confederation  and  authority.  If  they 
want  the  reality,  they  affect  the  appearance  of 
them,  and,  even  when  power  alone  reduces  their 
fellow  men  under  their  fubjection,  they  endeavor 
alfo,  if  not  ftupified  by  the  habits  of  tyranny,  to 
engage  their  efteem,  and  to  captivate  their  bene- 
volence, fenfible  that  dominion,  to  which  thefe 
give  nofupport,  can  never  be  fure  and  lafting.  I 
am  far  from  afferting  that  ail  power  and  diftinc- 
tion  are  founded  on  this  natural  bails.  Lament- 
able experience  proves  the  contrary.  But,  that 
refpectableand  amiable  qualities  are  the  primitive 
fources  of  authority  and  pre-eminence  ;  and, 
when  freely  allowed  to  exert  themfelves,  cannot 
fail  to  obtain  them,  will  be  as  generally  acknow- 
ledged as  it  is  certain  in  fade*. 


*  Hence  it  i»  e:fy  to  account  for  monarchies  having  heen 
zdmoft  every  where  the  primitive  form  of  government.  As  no 
fociety  could  fubfift  without  fome  dire&ing  power,  and,  as  rude 
and  favage  men  were  incapable  of  exterdi  g  their  views  to  thofe 
more  complicated  fyftems  which  obfervation  and  experience  alone 
can  fuggeft  and  eftablifti,  it  was  natural  for  them  to  pitch  on  the 
fimpleft  form,  which  was  dictated  rather  by  fentiment,  ihan  by 
reafon,  and  to  yield  that  voluntary  obedience  to  a  chief,  which 
their  admiration  of  his  fuperior  qualities  infpired.  This  fimple 
form  lafted  as  long  as  the  chief  continued  to  difplay  thefe  virtues, 
and  to  apply  tfceai  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  conciliate  general  bene- 


(     *3     ) 

Nature  herfelf,  then,  has  evidently  eftabliihed 
unambiguous  diflinclions  among  men,  and  produ- 
ced a  very  remarkable  inequality  among  the  indi- 
viduals of  our  fpecies.  We  .may  freely  afTert, 
that,  if  any  mortal  confpicuouQy  excelled  the  reft 
of  mankind  in  every  poflible  talent  and  quality, 
whether  corporeal,  intellectual,  or  moral, which  di- 
ftinguifhes  the  fpecies  in  general,  and  had  everypof- 
fible  opportunity  of  difplaying  this  perfection  in  all 
itsluftre,  he  would  be  raifed,  by  nature  herfelf,  as 
much  above  the  reft  of  his  fellow  men  as  they  are 
above  the  inferior  animals,  and  be  as  clearly  de- 
figned  to  lead  and  govern  them.  Or,  if  all  the 
abovementioned  qualities  were  the  peculiar  attri- 
butes of  any  given  number  of  men,  thefe  would 
be  marked  out,  by  Divine  Providence,  as  a  glori- 
ous ariftocracy  or  fenate,  to  prefide  over  the  com- 
munity to  which  they  belonged.  For  they  would 
be  pofTeffed  of  every  qualification   to  difcern,  of 

volcnce.  But,  as  foon  as  oppreftion  rendered  him  an  object  of 
hatred,  or  weaknefs,  an  object  of  contempt,  the  evils  experienced 
pointed  out  the  neceflity  of  fecuringthe  public  welfare  on  a  firmer 
bafisthan  the  capricious  pleafure  of  an  individual;  and  the  habits 
of  fociety  fuggeflc  d  more  complicatedfyftemsof  government,  better 
adapted  to  the  grand  objects  of  political  union.  Among  boysatfchool, 
one  diftinguilhed  by  his  courage,  his  fagacity,  or  his  art,  com- 
monly aflumes  the  lead,  and  governs  the  juvenile  community, 
with  a  fway  as  dofpotic  as  that  of  any  eaftern  monarch.  The  cafe 
is  nearly  the  fame  in  all  voluntary  aflbciations. 


(      24     ) 

every  difpofnion  to  purfue,  and,  from  the  willing 
homage  and  obedience  of  the  reft  of  mankind,  of 
every  power  to  fecure,  the  public  good.  Or, 
laftly,  if  any  human  being  were  invefled  with 
fuch  ftrength  and  agility  of  body,  w  ith  fuch  com- 
pals  cf  underftanding,  and  with  fuch  complete 
mattery  of  his  own  pailions,  as  fully  to  provide 
himfelf  with  every  thing  neceffary  for  his  fubfift- 
ence,  or  conducive  to  his  convenience  and  com- 
fort, and  as  neither  to  be  expofed  to  the  injuries 
of  others,  nor  to  be  tempted  to  injure  them, 
nor  to  be  affected  by  their  misfortunes  ;  fuch 
a  mortal  would  be  perfectly  independent  of  the 
reft  of  mankind  ;  and  as  he  needed  nothing  from 
them,  fo  he  would,  in  no  refpect  whatever,  be 
their  debtor. 

But  fuch  characters  as  thofe  above  defcribed 
have  never  yet  exifted  in  the  world,  and  indeed 
never  can  exift.  Such  an  aflemblage  of  perfection 
is  not  human,  but  divine. 


(     25      ) 


CHAPTER        II. 

Of  the   DISTRIBUTION   of  HUMAN  ABILITIES    and 
TALENTS. 


I 


F  we  confider  the  various  talents  and  modes  of 
excellence  of  which  the  human  fpecies  is  capable, 
we  mail  acknowledge  that  neither  all  thefe,  nor 
any  confiderable  number  of  them,  have  ever  been 
found  united  in  any  one  individual ;  nay,  that  the 
higheft  degrees  of  many  of  them  are  incompatible 
with  each  other.    For,  when  diftinguimed  honors, 
or  extenfive  reputation,   are  acquired  by  illuftri- 
ous  qualities,  we  are  not  thence  to  infer  that  the 
perfons,  to  whom  thefe  diftin&ions  are  allotted, 
furpafs  the  reft  of  mankind  in  every  quality  be- 
longing to  the  fpecies  ;  but   only  that  they  have 
attained  fuperiority  in  fuch,  as  being  more  un- 
common, are,    on   that  account,    more  admired. 
Thbfe  mechanical  arts  and  inferior  virtues,  with- 
out which  human  fociety  could  not  fubfift,  attract 
no  admiration,  becaufe  they  are  daily  exhibited. 
C 


(     26     ) 

Yet  the  moft  illuftrious  of  mankind  ftand  more  in 
need  of  the  benefits  which  thefe  afford,  than  their 
diftinguifhed  abilities  can  confer  on  the  humble 
poffefTors  of  the  former.  As  thofe  endowed  with 
the  qualities  moft  neceffary  in  human  life,  but  of 
inferior  eftimation,  efpecially  fuch  as  are  difplay- 
ed  in  mechanical  labour  and  art,  cannot,  from 
their  occupations  themfelves,  afpire  at  the  fublim- 
er  and  more  elegant  abilities  which  difiinguifh 
others  ;  thefe,  on  the  other  hand,  muft  remain 
deftitute  of  the  more  ufeful  ones.  That  leifure, 
meditation,  and  itudy,  without  which  the  facul- 
ties of  the  mind  cannot  be  perfected,  necefTarily 
prevent  that  full  exercife  of  the  corporeal  mem- 
bers, which  enfures  their  higheft  vigour  and  agi- 
lity. A  fancy  uncommonly  lively  and  bright  is 
adverfe  to  the  patient  and  accurate  refearches  of 
philofophy,  and  to  the  juft  application  of  the  in- 
tellect, in  the  difcovery  and  developement  of 
truth,  and  the  improvement  of  fcience.  That 
minute  attention  to  calculation,  that  arithmetical 
exactnefs,  and  that  conftant  obfervance  of  the  un- 
varying routine  of  buiinefs,  which  are  necefTary 
to  mercantile  and  ceconomical  purfuits,  but  which 
prefect  no  imagery  to  the  mind,  are  inaufpicious 
to  the  more  elegant  enjoyments  cf  tafte,  and  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts.  The  ftern  and 
awful  virtues  feldom  afibciate  with  the  gentle  and 


(     27     ) 

amiable,  and,  claiming  refpect  and  veneration, 
feem  to  difdain  complacency  and  love.  Even  Tome 
corporeal  perfections  appear  repugnant  to  others 
The  moft  robuft  conformation  of  the  members,  and 
the  ftrength  it  produces,  are  not  eafily  united 
with  great  agility,  and  with  delicate  refinement 
in  the  organs  of  fenfe.  In  a  word,  it  appears  to 
be  the  intention  of  nature,  that,  although  the 
human  faculties  are  various,  and  capable  of  being 
carried  to  amazing  heights  of  excellence  ;  yet  this 
ihould  fejdom  be  accompliihed,  unlefs  when  un- 
common culture  and  improvement  are  beftowed 
on  fome  particular  faculty,  or  at  leait,  on  a  few 
faculties  which  have  a  peculiar  native  ftrength. 

Variety  of  talents  is,  therefore,  more  applica- 
ble to  the  fpecies  than  to  individuals.  The  feeds 
of  each  (as  we  have  above  obferved)  are,  per- 
haps, caft  into  every  individual  conftitution,  but 
the  foil  is  differently  adapted  to  them,  and  that 
particular  power  to  which  it  is  favourable,  fprings 
up,  and,  if  properly  cultivated,  comes  to  maturi- 
ty, fpreads  around  its  branches,  and  bears  abun- 
dant fruit.  It  may  be  objected,  that  it  feems  ve- 
ry prepofterous  to  fuppofe  the  creator  implanting 
in  any  conftitution  the  principles  of  powers,  which 
were  never  defigned  to  come  to  maturity.  But, 
let  it  be  confidered  that,  as  the  different  improve- 
C  2 


(      28     ) 

ments  of  men  depend  on  various  occurrences,  and, 
as  mentioned  above,  the  characleriftical  qualities 
of  each  individual  will  be  in  the  united  degree  of 
their  primitive  ftrength,  and  of  the  opportunities 
of  culture  ;  it  was  neceffary  that  the  feeds  of  each 
fhould  be  dropped  into  every  human  frame,  fo 
that,  when  favourable  circumftances  concurred, 
that  power  which  they  were  beft  calculated  to  im- 
prove might  fpring  up  and  flcurifh,  and  thus  as 
much  human  excellence  might,  on  the  whole,  be 
produced  as  the  human  condition  would  admit. 
This  was,  moreover,  neceffaryin  order  to  confii- 
tute  that  general  firailarity  which  characterises  the 
fpecies,  and  unites  them  together  in  the  bonds  of 
a  common  nature. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  undoubted  that  thofe  who 
aim  at  diftinction,  or  even  at  moderate  degrees  of 
excellence  in  a  great  variety  of  objects,  generally 
exhibit  a  ridiculous  figure;  after  having  v ailed 
their  time,  exhaufted  their  powers,  and  fuperin- 
duced  on  their  minds  habits  of  inconstancy  and 
iicklenefs.  Even  the  greateft  genuifes,  when 
they  leave  that  particular  track,  in  which  indul- 
gent nature  had  provided  them  with  unfading  lau- 
rels, and  endeavour  to  invade  the  province,  and 
and  fnatch  the  rewards  of  others,  while  they  pre- 
fent,  on  the  one  hand,  the  moil  aftonilhing  inftan- 


(       29      ) 

ces  of  the  ftrength  of  the  human  mind,  afford,  oil 
the  other,  no  lefs  convincing  proofs  of  its  weak- 
nefs  and  vanity*.  Hence  the  receflity  of  each  in- 
dividual devoting  himfelf  to  fome  favourite  and 
ufeful  purfuit,  to  which  every  other  mould  be 
fubfervient,  and  of  applying  to  the  diligent  dif- 
charge  of  the  duties  of  that  department  in  which 
he  can  produce  the  greateft  benefit  to  mankind, 
and  acquire  the  greateft  honour  to  himfelf. 

From  what  has  been  faid  in  this  and  the  prece- 
ding chapter,  it  appears,  in  the  fir/}  place,  That 
nature  herfelf  has  eftablifhed  clear  and  certain 
diftinctions  among  men,  in  the  various  qualities 
allotted  to  each  individual,  arid  in  the  various  op- 
portunities furnifhed  them  in  the  courfe  of  life  for 
their  improvement.  .  Thefe  opportunities  may  oc- 
cur, though  in  inferior  degrees,  in  the  rudeft  as 
well  as  in  the  mod  polifhed  ftates  of  fociety.  It 
is  evident,  fecortdly,  That  thefe  diftinctions  com- 
prehend not  the  perfection  of  all  the  human  pow- 
ers, but  the  lingular  excellence  of  one,  or  of  a 
few  of  them,  confpicuous  in  individuals.   " 


*  This  might  be  illuftrated  by  many  examples  of  a  foolifhaffo 
tation  of  uaivsrfality  of  genius. 


(     3°     ) 

—  — —  — 

CHAPTER       III. 

Of  the    MUTUAL  DEPENDENCE    of  MANKIND. 


FROM  the  two  facte  eftabli/hed  in  the  con- 
clufion  of  the  laft  chapter,  duly  confidered,  it  ap- 
pears to  me  that  the  juft  notion  of  the  natural 
equality  of  all  mankind,  as  far  as  relates  to  their 
mutual  duties,  is  to  be  derived  ;  and  that,  howe- 
ver paradoxical  it  may  feem,  an  equality  the  moft 
e*ac"t  and  perfect,  in  refpecl  of  every  moral  and 
focial  obligation,   fprings  from  inequality  itfelf. 

Human  nature  is  evidently  endowed  with  a  va- 
riety of  appetites  and  defires,  adapted  to  the  va- 
rious objects  which  are  capable  of  fupplying  its 
wants,  or  of  furnifhing  it  with  pleafures.  The  bo- 
dy {lands  in  need  of  conftant  fupport,  which  is  not 
to  be  procured  without  confiderable  art  and  la- 
bour. This  art  and  labour  muft  be  greatly  increa- 
fed,  if  not  only  the  necefTaries,  but  alfo  the  con- 
veniencies  and  elegancies  of  life  are   defired,  and 


(     3'     )' 

the  refinements  of  fenfe  confidered  as  objects  of 
purfuit.  The  fenfes  are  not  only  inlets  of  plea- 
fures  merely  corporeal,  but  of  others  alio  of  a 
more  refined  and  delicate  kind,  of  which  the  mind 
under  the  influence  of  fancy,  is  the  chief  percipi- 
ent. Hence  they  open  a  very  extenfive  field  of 
human  enjoyment,  and  claim  the  whole  cornpafs 
of  nature  to  adminifler  materials  for  the  fine  arts. 
The  mind  of  man  is  eagerly  defirous  of  knowledge, 
and  wifhes  to  difavver  the  relations,  the  caufes  and 
the  effects,  of  the  various  objects  that  are  prefent- 
ed  to  it.  Not  only  corporeal  wants  and  appe- 
tites, the  fenfes  of  beauty,  of  harmony,  and  of 
magnificence,  and  the  love  of  knowledge,  fubject 
man  to  neceffities,  which  muft  be  fupplied,  or  oSer 
to  him  pleafures  which  he  cannot  but  defire  ;  he 
is  alfo  actuated  by  various  affections,  fome  felrifh 
and  fome  benevolent,  which  ferve  as  conitant 
fpurs  to  action,  and  impel  him  into  various  tracks, 
according  to  the  different  complexions  of  their  ob- 
jects. 

Such  is  the  nature  of  man  ;  and  from  what  h3s 
been  faid  above,  as  well  as  from  other  coniidera- 
tions  on  which  I  fhall  {lightly  touch,  it  is  evident, 
that  each  individual  is  infufficient,  not  only  for 
his  own  perfection,  but  even  for  thelupply  of  his 
mofl  urgent  neceflities.     The   other  animals  are 


(       32       ) 

by  nature  provided    with  defence  and  covering, 
with  fubfiftencc  and   fhelter.     They   Toon  attain 
the  full  vigour  and  the  complete  exercife  of  their 
powers,   and,  without  inftruction  or  fuccour,  can 
apply  them  with  certainty  to  their  refpective  ends. 
But  man,  as  he  enters  into  the  world  naked,   de- 
fenceless,   and    unprovided    with    fubfiftence,  fo, 
without  the  afliftance  and  co-operation  of  his  fpe- 
cies,  lie  muft  ever  remain  in  the  moft  abject  and 
Com  for  tie  fs   condition.      The   inclemency  of  the 
feafons,  the  fterility  of  the  earth,  the  ferocity    of 
fa  v  age  animals,    his  natural  imbecility,    oppofe  to 
his  comfortable  exiftence  fo  many  and  fo  powerful 
obftacles,  as  he  could  never  expect  of  himfelf  to 
lurmount.    lie  is  aiTailed  by  evils  which  he  cannot 
repel,  fubjec~t  to  wants    which   he  cannot  fupply, 
and  furrounded  by  objects  which    he  cannot,  by 
his  own  ftrength,    convert  to  his  ufe.     Deftined 
for  fociety,  he  is  immediately  thrown  on  its  care, 
and  bound  by  his  own  weaknefs,  to  contribute   to 
itsflrength.    Defigned  to  form  the  moft  intimate 
union  with  his  fellow  men,  he  is  conflituted  mifer- 
able  and  deftitute  without  them  ;  but,  conftrained 
by  this  circumftance,  to  join  his  efforts  to  theirs, 
he  derives  the  moft  sftonh'hing    acquired  power 
from  his  natural  imbecility.     Furnifhed  with  ca- 
pacities greatly  fuperior  to  inftincl,  he  at  firft  ex- 
crcifes  them  in  a  manner  greatly  below  it ;  and, 


(     33     ) 

formed  for  infinite  improvement,  he  proceeds 
from  the  fmallefl  beginnings  ;  but  can  neither  be- 
gin nor  proceed  without  the  co-operation  of  his 
fellow  men. 

What  multiplication  of  ingenuity,  what  combi- 
nation of  induflry,  what  concurrence  of  different 
abilities,  are  requifite  not  only  to  carry  to  perfec- 
tion, but  even  to  invent  and  exerciie,  with  any 
tolerable  degree  of  dexterity,  thofe  mechanical 
arts  and  employments,  which  exalt  the  citizen  a- 
bove  the  favage,  which  fweeten  and  embeUim  fa- 
cial life,  which  furnifh  all  that  variety  of  conve- 
nience and  pleafure  we  daily  behold  and  enjoy, 
and  which,  from  the  mod  helplefs  of  the  animal 
creation,  render  man  the  lord  of  the  world.  Will 
the  forefl  be  felled  and  moulded  into  furniture, 
the  quarry  be  dug  and  polifhed  into  materials  for 
building,  the  marfn  drained  and  converted  into  a- 
rable  land,  the  overflowing  river  confined  to  its 
proper  channel,  the  inferior  creatures  conftrained 
to  fuccour  human  weaknefs  by  their  fuperior 
ftrength,  or  their  fpoils  be  manufactured  into 
clothing;  will  the  fuperfiuities  of  one  country 
fupply  the  deficiencies  of  another,  and  navigation 
unite  the  molt  diftant  regions  by  the  mutual  and 
permanent  ties  of  beneficial  commerce;  will  all 
this,  and  much  more,  which  I  forbear  to  c- ■ume- 


(     34     ) 

rate,  be  accomplifhed  without  the  united  and  jnft- 
]y  regulated  efforts  of  the  human  fpccies,  and  the 
equal  application  df  the  talents  of  each  to  the 
common  intereft*?  Will  the  fecret  fprings  of  na- 
ture be  explored,  and  the  laws,  which  ihe  obferves 
through  all  her  different  provinces,  be  inveftiga- 
ted  unlefs  time  and  opportunity  are  furnimed  to 
the  acute  and  the,  ingenious,  by  means  of  a  com- 
modious fubiiflence  provided  for  them,  by  the  la- 
bour and  induflry  of  thole  whole  faculties  are 
lefs  refined  and  exalted? 

Thus  it  appears  that,  as  each  individual  is  total- 
ly ini'ufficient  for  his  own  happinefs,  fo  he  rnuft. 
depend,  in  a  great  meafure,  on  the  a  (lift  an  cc  of 
others  for  its  attainment;  and  that  however  much 
any  one  may  contribute  to  the  benefit  of  his  fel- 
low men,  by  the  excellence  and  fplendour  of  his 
abilities,  whether  nutural  or  acquired,  he  derives 
from  them  as  much  as  he  can  befiow,  and  fre- 
quently much  more  than  he  gives. 

If  the  union  of  all,  then,  be  necellary  for  the 
fuflenance,  the  convenience  and  the  happinefs  of 
each  individual,  and  each  individual  can,  in  his 
turn,  contribute  coniiderably  to  the  common  wel- 

*  fee  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  Book  I. 


(     35    ) 

fare,   it  follows,  as    a   necefTary  confequence    of 
this  determination  of  nature,   that  order  and  fu- 
bordination  muft  be  introduced,    by  which  the 
different  members   of  the  community  may  have 
their  proper  talks  allotted  to  them,  the  talents  of 
each  be  directed  to  their  proper  objects,  injuftice 
and  violence  be  reftrained,  and  as  great  a  fum  of 
common  felicity  be  produced,  as  the  condition  of 
humanity  will  permit.     Hence,  new  channels  are 
cut  out  for  abilities,  namely,  thofe  which  are  ex- 
ercifed  in  offices  of  power  and  authority.      As  rea- 
fon,  however,  loudly  dictates  the  inftitution    of 
thefe  for  the  common  good  of  the  human  race  ; 
fo  me  requires  that  they  fall  to  the  lot  of  thofe 
who  are  qualified  to  difchsrge  them.      When  this 
actually  takes  place,  the  order  of  nature  is  observ- 
ed, and  all  its  happy  confequences  enfue.     When 
this  order  is  overturned,  and  the  different  depart- 
ments of  fociety,  but  efpecially  thofe  of  the  high- 
eft  dignity  and  ufe,  are  committed  to  fuch  as  are 
incapable  of  difcharging  the  ^duties  of   them,  all 
the  diirnal  effects  of  folly,  injuftice,  and  confufion, 
are  fpread  through  the  whole  of  the  fecial  frame, 
and  the  evils  of  that  inequality,   which    the  cor- 
ruption and  biindnefs  of  mankind  have  introduced, 
are  feverely  felt.      When  the  talents  and  merits 
of  men  are  allowed  their  free  courfe,  are  permit- 
ted a  fair  field  for  their  cxercife,  -and  are  not  de- 


(     36     ) 

prived  of  thofe  rewards  which  are  by  nature  an- 
nexed to  them,  there  never  can  be  any  ground  to 
complain  of  inequality  among  men.  For,  howe- 
ver unequal  their  abilities  and  opportunities  may 
be  in  themfelves,  the  mod  perfect*  equality  exifts 
in  the  distribution  of  the  rewards  and  advantages 
annexed  to  each  by  theconfutution  of  nature.  The 
good  effects  of  univerfal  induflry,  and  the  proper 
application  of  the  powers  of  every  individual,  fo 
as  to  produce  the  greatest  good  upon  the  whole, 
are  then  felt  through  all  the  focial  body.  Every 
per Ion  poffefTes  that  degree  of  wealth,  of  cpnfide- 
ration,  and  of  honour,  to  which  he  is  entitled  by 
his  honed  induflry,  or  by  his  fervices  to  the  pub- 
lic. The  active  and  noble  minded  exert  all  their 
powers  for  the  common  welfare,  in  the  moft  effi- 
cacious and  illuflrious  manner.  The  indolent 
and  felfifh  are  conftrained,  by  the  indigence  and 
contempt  into  which  they  muft  otherwife  fall,  to 
contribute  their  mare  to  it.  Eut,  when  power 
and  riches  are  employed  to  fruflrate  virtue  of  the 
refpeel  which  is  its  due,  abilities,  of  the  diftindion 
and  influence  which  they  juflly  claim,  and  honeft 
induflry,  of  its  natural  fruits,  a  moft  mocking  in* 
equality  takes  place,  which  can  only  lubfift  in  con- 
junction with  the  mod  odious  tyranny.  In  pro- 
portion as  this  opprefiion  prevails,  which 
throws  the  principal  advantages  of  focicty   into 


(     37     ) 

the  hands  of  a  few,  by  no  means  the   moft  refpec- 
table  of  its  members,   and  renders  it  a  patrimony 
and  inheritance,   of  which  they  may  difpofe   at 
pleafure,  fociety  is  corrupted   and  miferable.     In 
proportion  as  that  equality  is  maintained,   which 
the  Creator  has   eftablifhed,   and  which   confifts, 
not  in  all  the  members  of  the   focial   body  being 
placed  on  a  level,  but  in  mulual  dependence  and 
parity  of  obligation  among  all,   amidft  a  variety  of 
diftinclions,  conditions,  and  ranks,  fociety  is  hap- 
py, free,  and  flourifhing,  fecuring  to  each   indivi- 
dual the  full  enjoyment  of  all  his  natural  advanta- 
ges, enfuring  to  the  public  the  complete  product 
of  the  efforts  of  all  well  directed  and  juftly  com- 
bined ;  uniting  all  the  members  of  the  focial  body 
by  the  ties  of   mutual  intereft    and  benevolence, 
and  preferving  as  much  liberty  as  is  confiftent 
with  civil  union. 

In  fuch  a  happy  ftate  of  things,  whatever  forms 
of  fubordination  may  exift,  as  there  is  a  mutual 
dependence  among  all  theparts-of  the  focial  body  ; 
fo  there  is  not  the  fmalleft  ground  for  pride  and 
infolence,  on  the  one  hand,  or  for  degradation  and 
debasement  of  fentiment,  on  the  other.  Are  any 
exalted  above  others  by  the  fuperiority  of  their 
mental  powers,  they  are  inferior  to  them  in  other 
qualities,  which  are  abfolutely  neceffary  to  the 
D 


(     38     ) 

fupport  and  convenience  of  life.  If  one  excels 
in  ufeful  qualities,  another  is  diftinguifhed  by  a- 
greeable  and  mining  ones  ;  and,  as  pleafure  with- 
out utility,  is  pernicious,  fo  utility,  without 
pleafure,  becomes  languid  and  infipid.  If  one 
is  exalted  to  power,  or  llluflxious  by  fame,  thofe 
who  faithfully  difcharge  the  duties  of  an  hum- 
ble and  obfcure  (ration,  enable  him  to  fulfil 
the  duties  of  his  more  eonfpicuous  one,  and  con- 
tribute to  his  exaltation,  by  occupying  thofe 
parts  of  the  general  fyftem,  without  which  the 
higher  orders  could  not  fubfift,  and  by  paying  him 
that  deference  and  refpecl:  to  which  his  merit  is  in- 
titled.  If  one  is  eminent  by  his  wifdom  and  fa- 
gacity,  by  his  genius  and  wit,  by  his  knowledge 
and  erudition  ;  another  is  nolefs  diffcinguifhed  by 
his  activity  and  ftrength,  by  his  fkill  and  dexterity, 
by  his  induftry  and  labour.  If  one  is  venerable 
by  his  elevation  of  foul,  by  his  generofity,  public 
fpirit,  and  intrepidity  ;  another  is  amiable  by  his 
gentlenefs  and  complaifance,  by  his  patience,  mo- 
di (ty,  and  meekncfs  ;  and,  if  the  former  qualities 
are  the  ornaments,  the  latter  are  the  great  fweet- 
ners,  of  life,  while  both,  operating  in  conjunction, 
fupply  mutual  defects,  and  impart  mutual  ftrength 
and  imbeliifbment.  If  thofe  who  fill  the  higher 
ftations  in  a  becoming  manner,  confer  the  greatefl 
benefits  on  their  fellow  men,  they  are  equally  in- 


(     39     ) 

debted  to  them  for  their  fupport.  If  the  latter 
ftand  in  need  of  the  judgment  and  penetration  of 
the  former;  in  order  to  devife  the  b eft  plans  of 
profecuting  the  public  good,  and  of  maintaining 
the  general  fafety  ;  thefe,  again,  ftand  in  need  of 
their  refolution  and  diligence  to  carry  their  plans 
into  execution.  If  fome  contribute  to  the  inftruc- 
tion  and  improvement  of  their,  fellow  men,  by 
teaching  and  illuftrating  the  grand  principles  of 
virtue,  on  which  the  welfare  of'  fociety  is  princi- 
pally founded,  thofe  who  enjoy  the  benefit  of 
their  inftru&ions,  turn  them  to  their  profit,  by 
pra&ifing  towards  them  the  virtues  which  they  in- 
culcate- If  one  clafs  of  men  maintain  good  or- 
der and  peace,  and  another  exercife  all  the  ele- 
gant and  ufeful  arts  of.  focial  life,  there  are  o- 
thers  who  fecure  thefe  enjoyments  and  advanta- 
ges againft  external  invasion,  and  offer  their  blood 
as  their  contribution  to  the  common  inter  eft. 

As,  in  the  human  body,  therefore,  the  welfare 
of  the  whole  depends  upon  that  of  each  individual 
member,  and  that  again  is  necelfarily  affected  by 
whatever  affects  the  whole  fyftem  ;  and  there  is 
thus  a  mutual  dependence  and  iympathy  among  all. 
the  parts  ;  fo,  in  fodety,  every  individual  having 
a  particular  portion  of  talents,  and,  if  properly 
placed,  a  particular  ftation,  conformable  to  this, 
Da 


(  40  ; 

allotted  to  him,  becomes  neceffary  to  the  welfare 
of  the  whole  community,  and  as  he  affects,  is  like- 
wife  affected  by,  its  profperity  or  detriment.  All 
are  united  by  mutual  dependence  and  fupport : 
Break  but  one  link  of  the  chain,  and  the  reft  are 
of  no  ufe,  or,  at  leaf!:,  are  deprived  of  much  ad- 
vantage and  comfort,  which  is  enjoyed  when  the 
focial  feries  is  complete. 

Nor  ought  it  to  be  alledged,  that  many  of 
thofe  wants,  which  cannot  be  fupplied  but  in  foci- 
ety,  are  not  the  wants  of  nature,  but  are  merely 
adventitious,  and  generated  in  that  fociety,  the 
neceffity  of  which  they  are  produced  to  prove. 
We  readily  grant  that,  in  refined  and  highly  po- 
liced ftates  of  civilized  life,  where  luxury  has  u- 
niverfally  diffufed  its  effeminating  influence,  ma- 
ny wants  and  defires  are  generated,  which  are 
not  only  not  agreeable  to  nature,  but  repugnant 
lo  human  perfection  and  felicity.  Let  it  how- 
ever be  obferved,  that  this  pernicious  tendency 
to  human  happinefs  begins  by  loofening  thofe 
ties  which  knit  men  moft  firmly  together.  It  is 
felfifb,  not  focial,  enjoyments  which  are  moft  ad- 
verse to  human  perfection,  and  man  begins  to  in- 
jure his  own  happinefs,  by  Separating  it  from  the 
general  good.  It  is  undoubted  that  all  the  origi- 
nal powers  of  human  nature  are  carried  to   the 


(    4t    ) 

higheft  perfection  in  fociety,  and  droop  and  lan- 
guifh  in  folitude.  That  ftate,  furely,  which  is 
moft  perfective  of  every  human  faculty,  is  the  mod 
natural,  and  it  is  only  by  the  ftrangeft  perverfion 
of  terms  and  ideas  that  the  contrary  can  be  aflert- 
ed.  But  the  perfection  of  the  focial  ftate  cannot 
be  attained,  without  the  mutual  dependence  of 
mankind,  in  that  extenfive  fenfe  in  which  I  have 
exhibited  it.  That  dependence  is,  therefore;  found- 
ed in  the  conftitution  of  nature  itfelf. 


(     42     ) 
CHAPTER        IV. 

FINAL  CAUSES  of  the  VARIETY  o/HUMAN  TALENTS. 


XT  is  evidently  the  intention  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence in  beftowing  upon  different  perfons  different 
powers  and  abilities,  to  point  them  out  for  diffe- 
rent ftations  and  circumftances,  to  aflign  to  them 
different  duties  and  tafks,  and  thus  to  promote 
moft  effectually  the  welfare  of  the  human  fpecies. 
By  this  fcheme,  it  is  unqueftionable,  many  more 
advantages  are  obtained,  with  regard  to  the  beft 
interests  of  mankind,  than  could  have  been  fecur- 
ed  by  difpenfing  the  fame  portion  of  ability  and 
virtue,  that  diftinguifhes  our  fpecies,  on  any  other 
plan  whatever.  For  every  particular  talent  is 
thus  cu  Itivated  with  greater  fuccefs,  when  it  oc- 
cupies the  conftant  and  habitual  attention  of  its 
poffefTor,  than  it  could  have  been  if  he  had  been 
overloaded  with  a  multiplicity  of  employments,  or 
diffracted  by  the  exercife  of  various  abilities.  A 
greater  fum  of  excellence  is  thus  produced  in  the 
fpecies,  and,  of  confequence,   its  perfection  and 


(    43     ) 

happinefs  is  more  effectually  promoted.  By  this 
plan  of  diftribution,  moreover,  opportunities  arc 
afforded  for  the  exercife  of  many  virtues,  which 
could  not  have  otherwife  exifted.  Thus,  were 
all  equally  wife  and  learned,  no  opportunity 
could  be  afforded  for  difplaying  either  a  communi- 
cative or  a  docile  difpofition.  Were  all  equally 
rich,  or  equally  powerful,  neither  generofity  nor 
gratitude  could  be  excited  ;  and,  as  there  could 
be  no  demand  for  fuccour  and  protection,  on  the 
one  hand,  fo,  on  the  other,  there  would  be  no  oc- 
cafion  for  condefcenfion  and  fympathy.  Finally, 
mankind  by  being  rendered  absolutely  neceffary 
to  each  other,  are  conftrained  to  maintain  a  mutu- 
al intercourfe  of  good  offices  ;  and  fociety  is  thus 
united  by  the  firmeft  and  moft  lading  bonds. 

In  fact,  this  diverfity  of  talents  and  virtues  ap- 
pears to  be  the  chief  circumftance  which  qualifies 
men  for  a  focial  and  political  exiftence.  Were  all 
endowed  with  the  fame  definite  portion  of  pow- 
ers, of  whatever  kind,  to  what  purpofe  would 
men  affociate,  fince  they  would  derive  little  more 
from  their  union  than  they  individually  poffeffed? 
An  accumulation  of  mere  ftrength  would  be  the 
only  effect  of  combined  powers,  in  the  fame  man- 
ner that  ilx  horfes  can  draw  a  greater  weight,  and 
to  a  greater  diftance,  than  two.     This  diverfity  of 


(     44    J 

abilities,  by  rendering  mankind  mutually  depend- 
ent from  their  detached  weaknefs,  becomes  the 
ftrongeft  motive  to  afTociation,  the  moil  powerful 
bond  of  fociety,  and  its  greateft   excellence  and 
perfection,  when  it  is  properly  arranged.     With- 
out this,  and  on  the  fuppofition  that  the  fame  fpe- 
cific  qualities  were,  as   in  the  brutes,  allotted  to. 
each  individual,  a  more  perfect  equality  would 
indeed  be  eftablifhed  among   all  the  members   of 
the  fpecies  ;  but  it  would  be  an  equality  ufelefs  for 
every  purpofe  of  affociation,  and  would  ferve  ra- 
ther to  feparate  than  to  unite  them.  Thiscircum- 
ftance  I.  am  inclined   to  think,  has  not  hitherto 
been   fufficiently  confidered,  at  leaft  not  in  the 
light  in  which  I  have  reprefented    it.     In   this 
light,  thofe  pleas  of  fuperior  wifdom,  oroffupe- 
rior  power,  which  Ariftotle*,  and  fome  late  wri- 
ters, who  appear  not  very  favourable  to  the  caufe 
of  equal  freedom,  have  urged  as  the  foundations 
of  the  dominion  of  one  part  of  mankind  over  the 
reft,  are   deftitute   of  all   force.      For,  if  thefe 
pleas  mould  be  admitted,  even  in  their  utrooft  ex- 
tent, they  will  furnim  no  ground  for  independent 
dominion  and  fuperiority,  unlefs  it  can  be  proved, 
at  the  fame  time,  that  the  poflefTors  of  thefe  qua- 
lities are  equally  endowed  with  every  other  which 
is  necefTary  or  conducive  to  human  felicity.  Should 

*  Pol.  1.  zmo,  c.  a. 


(     45     ) 

the  wifdom  and  the  ftrength  (as  is  commonly  the 
cafe)  be  found  indifferent  fubjecls,  it  will  remain  to 
be  decided  to  which  the  fuperiority  is  to  be  align- 
ed, and  what  particular  degree  of  each  of  thefe  qua- 
lities is  neceflary  to  conflitute  a  rightful  claim.  Art 
and  ingenuity  maylikewife  fuppo'e  themfelves  en- 
titled to  fome  portion  of  dominion,  fince  it  is  un- 
doubted that  their  influence  is  very  confiderable 
in  the  affairs  of  life.  In  this  manner,  every 
thing  is  thrown  into  confufion,  and  no  clear  no- 
tion of  right  is  any  where  left.  But,  by  the  view 
we  have  taken  of  the  fubjecl,  (which  will,  I  flat- 
ter myfelf,  be  found  to  be  the  true  one)  every 
man  acquires  a  clear  and  definite  claim  according 
to  the  portion  he  contributes  to  the  general  wel- 
fare, a  moft  falutary  equality  is  dill  left  among 
mankind,  and  the  community  is  knit  together  by 
ties  which  cannot  be  diflblved,  without  the  de- 
struction of  general  and  particular  happinefs.  In 
a  word,  the  flighteft  contemplation  of  human  na- 
ture convinces  us  that  man  isdefignedby  his  Cre- 
ator for  fociety,  and,  as  this  was  his  deftination, 
he  is  fo  conffttuted  as  to  be  impelled  towards  it  by 
all  his  propenflties  and  powers,  and  linked  to  it  by 
all  his  wants  and  enjoyments,  with  whatever  abi- 
lities he  may  be  endowed,  or  in  whatever  ftation 
he  may  be  placed. 


(    46     ) 


CHAPTER       V. 

Thejtift  Notion  of  the  NATURAL  EQUALITY  ofMEX 

is  placed  in  equality  of  obligation. — The 

proper  tendency  of  this  doctrine. 


F 


ROM  what  has  been  already  faid;  it  will 
now  fnffieiently  appear,  that  the  moft  perfect  equa- 
lity of  obligation,  of  benefits  received  and  return- 
ed, fubfifts  among  all  the  members  of  fociety,  of 
whatever  denomination  or  degree,  who  faithfully 
dif(  harge  their  duties  ;  that  that  dependence, 
which  the  proud  and*  the  powerful  are  fain  to  li- 
mit to  one  fphere  and  ftation,  runs  through  all 
alike,  and  that  independence,  at  which  all  afpire, 
is  no  where  to  be  found  among  men.  For  al- 
though any  human  being  ihould  be  pofTefled  of 
every  imaginable  perfection  and  advantage  ;  yet 
while  he  lives  in  fociety,  and  abundantly  fatisties 
all  his  focial  propenfities,  from  which  the  fublim- 
eft  pleafures  of  human  nature  are  derived,  he  re- 
ceives from  mankind  fuch  an  ample  portion  of  iiap- 


(     47     ) 

pinefs,  that  he  is  bound  to  compenfate  it  by  every 
return,  which  the  utmoft  exertion  of  his  abilities 
can  enable  him  to  make.  From  his  elevateJ  fupe- 
riority  he  is  thus  obliged  to  defcend  to  the  equali- 
ty of  a  citizen,  and  of  a  man. 

In  the  eye  of  reafon,  therefore,  and  of  the 
Univerfal  Parent,  every  honeft  ftation  of.  life  is 
equally  honourable,  fince  they  are  all  but  parts 
of  the  great  focial  body  which  his  wifdom  has 
planned,  and  his  power  preferves.  In  this  view, 
no  human  creature  is  more  or  lefs  worthy  than 
another,  but  in  as  far  as  he  difcharges  or  neglects 
the  part  allotted  to  him,  and  augments  or  dim'u 
niihes  the  fum  of  general -felicity  ;  or  as  he  occu- 
pies a  place  which  he  is  incapable  of  filling,  de- 
prives others  of  their  juft  ftation,  fnatches,  from 
them  the  rewards  to  which  they  are  entitled,  or 
preVents  them  from  performing  the  duties  of  the 
ftation  in  which  they  are  placed,  and  of  the  fphere 
in  which  they  move. 

The  principles  above  eftablifhed  are  widely  dif- 
ferent from  thofe  which  pride  and  tyranny  em- 
brace and  inculcate.  If  men  are  endowed  with 
fuperior  abilities,  or  raifed  to  an  exalted  ftation, 
they  will  not  eafily  admit  that,  between  them  and 
their  inferiors,  the  dependence  and  the  obligation 


(     4«     ) 

are  reciprocal.  Unlefs  they  are  diftinguiflied  by 
peculiar  generofity  of  (entiment,  they  will  conli- 
der  it  as  no  very  pleafmg  doctrine  that,  between 
the  f'overeign  and  the  fubjecl,  the  magiftrate  and 
the  people,  the  great  and  the  mean,  the  rich  and 
the  poor,  the  acute  and  the  dull,  the  learned  and 
the  ignorant,  there  is  no  difference  but  in  the 
pofTeflion  of  different  powers,  and  in  the  difcharge 
of  different  offices  peculiar  to  each  capacity,  and 
ufeful  to  all  ;  and  that,  if  the  firft  have  a  juft  de- 
mand on  the  fecond  for  fubmiflion  and  obedience, 
for  honour  and  refpect,  for  convenience  and  eafe, 
the  fecond  have  as  juft  a  claim  on  them  for  protec- 
tion and  defence,  for  the  adminiftration  ofjuftice, 
and  the  prefervation  of  equal  liberty,  for  the  fup- 
ply  of  their  wants  and  the  relief  of  their  diftreffes, 
for  inftruftion  and  good  example.  Pride  and  ty- 
ranny would  place,  on  the  one  fide,  all  honour 
and  refpect,  and  nothing  but  difregard  and  con- 
tempt, on  the  other  ;  here,  all  oppreflion  and  vio- 
lence, and  there,  all  patience  and  fubmiflion  ;  here, 
all  convenience  and  pleafure,  and  there,  all  la- 
bour and  indigence  ;  here,  would  have  the  fmal- 
left  afliftance  to  beconiidered  as  an  eternal  obliga- 
tion, and  there,  the  greateft  fervices  to  pais  for 
indifpenfible  duties.  With  fuch  fentiments,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  the  mutual  dependence  and  obli- 
gation of  men  mould  be  rejected  as  a  dangerous 


(    49    ) 

and  odious  doctrine,  equally  fubverfive  of  public 
order,  and  of  private  right.     Thofe   who   think 
and  act  in  this  manner,  either  making  no  returns 
for  the  benefits  they  receive  from  fociety,  or  po'f- 
fefling  no  capacity  to  make  them,  are  eager  to  re- 
present every  notion  of  mutual  obligation  and  e- 
quality  among  men,  as  imaginary  and  prefumptu- 
ous,  and  to  oblige  the  world  to  look  on  them  -as 
its  eftablifhed  lords.     Butfuch  opinions  can  never 
retain  their  influence,  when  knowledge  lias  begun 
tQ  make  any  progrefs,  and  mankind  to  underfland 
their  own  nature  and  dignity.     The  bodies  of  men 
can  never  be  enflaved,  when  their  minds  are  free; 
and  the  moft  diligent  care  of  all  defpots,  of  what- 
ever rank  or  denomination,  ever  has  been,  and 
ever  mufl  be,  to  keep  mankind  in  ignorance.     As 
foon  as  knowledge  diffufes  her  light  over  the  dun- 
geon in  which  they  are  inchained,  the  doors  are 
thrown  open,   and  their  chains  fall  off.     In  fact, 
pride  and   tyranny,  by  deftroying   that  mutual 
obligation,  and  that  juft  equality  which  we  have 
now  eftablifhed,  fap  the  very  pillars  which  fup- 
port   greatnefs   and   difplay    fplendour.     For,  if 
there  is  no  mutual  obligation,  no  parity  of  right, 
then  power,  on  the  one  hand,  and  weaknefs  on 
the  other,  are  the  only  bonds  of  focial  or  civil  uni- 
on.    It  is  eafy  to  fee  where,  in  fuch   circumftan- 
ces,  the  greateft  power  will  be  found;  whether 
E 


(    50    ) 

in  the  hands  of  the  poor,  the  mean,  the  illiterate; 
or  in  thofe  of  the  rich,  the  great,  the  learned,  and 
the  ingenious.     But  if  the  grand  principle  of  equa- 
lity of  obligation,    and  of  mutual   dependence,  is 
adopted  in  opinion,  as  it  is  cftabliftied  in  nature, 
if  flations  and  offices  are  neither  unjuftly  ufurped, 
nor  their  duties  perfidioufly  and  weakly  performed, 
the   obligation  to  obedience  and   fubmilfion  is  as 
ftrorig  on  inferiors,  as  that  of  juftice  and  difmte- 
refted  zeal  for  the  public  good  is   on    rulers  and 
mao-iftrates;   ard  the  honor   obtained  by  diftin- 
ruiftied  abilities  is  equally  due  to  their  poffeffors, 
as  the  fruits  of  their  honeft  labour  are  due  to  the 
lower  orders  of  the  community.     This  principle 
places  the  fabric    of  fociety   on  a  firm  and  lafting 
foundation,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  building,  how- 
ever different  in  point  of  fplendour  and  ornament, 
are  fo  clofely  connected,  and   fo  necefiary    to  the 
whole,  that  none  of  them  can  be  removed  or  de- 
faced,   without  injuring  the  beauty  or  the  folidity 
of  the  flructure.  Thiscqually  balances  all  the  parts 
-,vA  members  of  the  fecial  body,   makes  pre-emi- 
ncice  itfelf  emerge  from   common  intereft,    and 
So-?in  depreffes  that  feparate  indq^endence  whidi 
pre-eminence  would  affume, by  referring  it  to  that 
ccttecYive  power  from  which  it  is  wholly  derived. 
\  conftant  balance,  and  readion  of  obligation  and 
du%  is  thus  maintained  through  all   the  depart- 


(    5'     ) 

rhents  of  fociety,  fimilaf  to  what  we  obferve  in 
nature.  As  exhalations  and  vapours  from  the 
ocean  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  earth,  refting 
on  the  tops  of  mountains,  form  the  fprings  whence 
are  derived  the  rivers  that  water  and  fertilize  the 
different  regions  of  the  globe,  anil  return  at  lad 
into  the  ocean,  and  thus  a  conftant  circulation  is 
maintained;  fo  the  more  elevated  fphere  of  focie- 
ty  derive  their  political  exiftence  and  energy  from 
the  general  mafs,  and,  if  properly  filled,  diffufe 
through  the  whole  focial  body  a  falutary  influence, 
which  again  ferves  to  maintain  their  dignity  and 
fplendour*  The  individuals  that  occupy  thefe 
fpheres,  detached  from  fociety,  and  confldered 
merely  as  individuals  of  the  human  race,  are  en- 
titled to  no  diftinclion  or  fuperiority,  but  what 
arifes  from  corporeal  or  mental  qualities,  which 
are  the  diftinctions  of  nature.  But,  viewed  in 
their  connedion  with  the  political  body,  they 
claim  their  pre-eminence  and  power,  on  the  fame 
principle  by  which  fociety  is  held  together,  name- 
ly, that  the  general  good  mull  limit  the  pretenli- 
ons  of  individuals. 

This  is  that   equality  of  mankind,  which  has 

been  fo  often  alTerted,  but  is  feldom  well  under- 

flood — an  equality  which  the  proud  and  tyrannical 

difdain,  becaufe    it  oppofes  their  felfifl.nefs  orin- 

E2 


(     52      ) 

dolence — an  equality  which  turbulent  and  defign- 
ing  men  are  fain  to  abufe  as  an  engine  for  over- 
turning regularity  and  government,  and  for  in- 
troducing that  anarchy  in  the  midftof  which  they 
themfelves  are  to  rife.  It  is  an  equality  which  im- 
plies fubordination — an  equality  of  wants,  with  a 
diverfityof  means  offupplying  them — an  equality 
of  obligation,  with  different  modes  of  difcharging 
it.  It  is  an  equality  which,  by  rendering  all  equal- 
ly neceflary,  makes  all,  who  faithfully  difcharge 
their  duties,   equally  honourable  in  the  fight  of 
God  ;  but,  by  requiring  higher  and  lower  ftations, 
and  various   diftinctions  and  fpheres,   eftabliihes 
different  degrees  of  re  fpect  ability  and  honour  a- 
mong  men.  It  is  an  equality  which  degrades  none 
but  the  tyrant,  the  ruffian,  the  thief,  the  volup- 
tuary, and  the  fluggard  ;  and  exalts  all,  but  thefe, 
to  the  ennobling  dignity  of  constituent  members 
of  the  grand  community  of  mankind,  and  of  fel- 
low labourers  with  God  in  advancing  the  felicity 
of  his  moral  and  intellectual  creation. 

Not  lefs  abfurd,  than  pernicious,  therefore,  is 
that  levelling  notion,  which  confounds  all  diftinc- 
tions  and  ranks,  annihilates  fubordination,  and 
deftroys  that  juft  equality  which  is  founded  in  na- 
ture, and  in  human  happinefs.  While  this  fran- 
tic opinion  is  directly  contrary  to  the  appointment 


(    53     ) 

of  God  in  the  eftablimment  of  fociety,  and  horri- 
bly deftructive  in    its  confequences,    it  commonly 
tends,  like  every   other  extravagant  and  vicious 
paflion,  to  frufrrate  its  own  gratification.     Taking 
licentioufnefs  for  liberty,    it  becomes  the   greateft 
promoter  of  defpotifm.       For,     as  nothing   has 
brought  religion  more  into  difrepute,   than  bigo- 
try, fanaticifm,  and  hypocrify,  which  have  fo  of- 
ten   afiumed   that  venerable   and  facred   name  ; 
and  as  nothing  has  brought  fo  much  difgrace  on 
philofophy,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  as 
the  profligate  lives  of  pretended  philofophers ;  fo 
licentioufnefs,  appearing  under  the  difguife  of  liber- 
ty, has  a  direct  tendency  to  render  it  either  odious 
or  contemptible.     The   tyrannical   opprefTors   of 
their  fellow  men,  and  their  fervile    abettors,  ea- 
gerly lay  hold  of  the  horrid  excefles  which  licen- 
tioufnefs produces,  and  at  which  they  fecretly  re- 
joice, as  infidels  delight  in  the  corruptions  of  reli- 
gion; paint  them  with  the  decpeft  colours   of  an 
inflamed  imagination  j   and  afcribe  them  with  tri- 
umph to  thofe  principles  of  true  liberty,  to  which 
they  are  lb  repugnant  in  their  origin,  and  fo  per- 
nicious in  their  confequences.  The  ignorant  mul- 
titude,   incapable  of  diftinguifhing    appearances 
from  realities,  haftily  admit  both  the  amnion  and 
its  inference,  and  feek  refuge  from  arnarchy  in  the 
chains  of  defpotifm.     The  wife,  however,  and  the 
E3 


(     54     ) 

good,  will  equally  guard  againft  the  wild  decla- 
mation of  the  demagogue,  and  the  crafty  infinua- 
tions  of  the  tyrant,  will  hold  faft  thofe  eternal 
principles  of  equity  which  God  has  imprened  on 
their  fouls,  and,  if  they  cannot  evince  their  truth, 
or  inculcate  their  practice,on  mankind,will  deplore 
the  blindnefs  and  the  corruption  of  their  fpecies, 
and  pray  that  the  Father  of  light  may  at  laft  un- 
fold a  day  of  knowledge  and  ferenity,  when  the 
benignant  voice  of  truth  mail  neither  be  (tilled  by 
the  mandate  of  tyranny,  nor  drowned  by  the  ac- 
clamations of  tumult,  when  the  power  of  opprel- 
flon  fhall  be  extinguifhed  together  with  the  defire 
of  it ;  when  freedom  fhall  be  eftablifhed  on  the 
bafis  of  fubordination,  and  fecured  by  obedience 
to  law ;  when  men  mall  be  attached  to  juflice  by 
the  permanent  bleflings  of  fecurity  and  peace. 


(    55    ) 

CHAPTER      VI. 

Some  Circumftances  o/equality  not  yet  conjidered* 


H 


AVING,  in  the  preceding  Chapters,  explain- 
ed the  chief  foundation  on  which  it  may  be  afiert- 
ed  that  all  men  are  equal,  in  as  far  as  relates  to 
every  focial  and  civil  duty,  I  fhall  now  briefly 
point  out  feveral  other  refpects  in  which  the  equa- 
lity of  mankind  is  farther  evident. 

I.  All  men  are  endowed  with  the  fame  frame 
of  body,  and  with  the  fame  genera]  conftitution 
of  mind.  Notwithftanding  the  diversities,  which 
obtain  among  individuals,  in  point  of  higher  or 
lower  degrees  of  excellence  in  any  of  the  original 
faculties  of  our  nature,  all  the  fpecies,  excepting 
fome  uncommon  and  monftrous  inftances,  is  cha- 
racterifed  by  the  fame  members  and  organs  of  body, 
and  by  the  fame  faculties,  propenfities,  and  affec- 
tions of  foul.  Does  the  richeft,  the  moft  power- 
ful,  the  moft  beautiful,  the  moil  ingenious  among 


(     5*     ) 

the  fons  of  men,  feel  lefs  the  {enfe  of  hunger  and 
thirft,  of  cold  and  pain,  than  thofe  of  contrary  de- 
fcriptions  ;  or  are  thefe  laft  lefs  diftinguimed  than 
the  former,  by  the  general  conftruclion  and  or* 
gans  of  the  human  frame;  Do  not  the  rich  and 
the  poor,  the  obfcure  and  the  elevated,  come  into 
the  world  in  the  fame  ftate  of  imbecility  and 
wretchednefs  ?  Is  the  infant  of  opulent  parents 
poflefled  of  greater  vigour,  or  does  he  require  lefs 
the  afnflance  of  thofe  on  whofecare  he  is  immedi- 
ately caft,  than  the  infant  of  the  peafant  or  the 
beggar  ?  Can  he  already  difcern  and  provide  his 
food,  ufe.  his  limbs,  defend  himfelf  from  danger, 
and,  by  his  hereditary  independence,  vindicate 
the  true  fuperiority  of  his  condition  ?  So  far  is  any 
of  thefe  from  being  the  cafe,  that,  if  there  is  any 
difference,  in  thefe refpecls,  between  him  and  the 
infant  of  meaner  rank,  it  is  ail  in  favour  of  the 
latter.  This,  from  the  ftrcngand  healthy  conni«- 
tution  of  his  parents,  brings  along  with  him  a  frame 
naturally  vigorous  and  robuft,  and  requiring  only 
the  mod  ordinary  care  for  its  nouriihment,  its 
prefervation,  and  its  final  maturity.  The  other 
often  inherits  from  thofe  who  begat  him  a  fickly 
and  (lender  conftitution,  which  the  utmofl  atten- 
tion and  afliduity  can  hardly  preferve  from  ex- 
tinction in  the  moment  of  birth,  and  afterwards 
more  frequently  debilitate  than  £rerigthen> 


(     57     ) 

Again,  the  fame  natural  principles,  propenfities, 
and  affections,  operate  on  all  mankind  with  differ- 
ent  degrees  of  force,  according  to  their  different 
fituations.  All  men,  of  whatever  rank  or  condi- 
tion, are  ftrongly  actuated  by  a  principle  of  felf- 
prefervation,  by  the  love  of  liberty,  by  the  de- 
fire  of  pleafure,  and  an  averfion  to  pain,  by  the 
love  of  fociety,  and  a  diflike  of  folitude,  by  the 
parental,  conjugal,  and  filial  attachments,  by  a 
fenfe  of  honour,  by  refentment  of  injuries,  and 
by  a  certain  affection  for  their  country.  None 
are  deftitute  of  fome  perception  of  beauty,  order, 
and  magnificence  in  the  works  of  nature  or  art, 
and  noiae,  but  fuch  as  are  monftroufly  corrupted, 
are  infenflble  to  the  eternal  diftinctions  of  right 
and  wrong,  of  virtue  and  vice,  of  truth  and  error, 
in  human  judgments  and  actions.  Even  the  moft 
ftupid,  ignorant  and  perverfe  of  the  human  fpecies 
differ,  in  this  refpect,  from  the 'brutes,  that,  as 
they  remember  the  paft,  and  anticipate  the  future, 
fo  they  are  capable  of  forming  and  purl  uing  fome 
plan  of  life,  of  conceiving  fome  fyflem  of  happi- 
nefs  which  they  defire  to  attain,  or  fome  image 
of  mifery  which  they  endeavour  to  avoid.  No 
human  being,  therefore,  enjoys  or  fuffers  like  the 
inferior  animals,  according  to  the  blind  impulfes  of 
appetite,  or  the  unanticipated  impreffions  of  fenfe, 
but  has  fome  previous  deliberation  and  choice,  with 


C  58   ) 

regard  to  the  objects  of  defire  and  averfion*  Every 
mortal  alio  feels  that,  by  the  birth-right  of  human 
nature,  he  is  entitled  to  certain  rights,  of  which 
he  cannot  be  deprived  without  cesfmg  to  be  a  man, 
or  without  envying  the  condition  of  the  inferior 
creatures.  Thefe  are  the  common  features  ©f 
humanity  which  characterise  all  the  fpecies,  and 
eftablifh  among  them  fo  many  points  of  equality* 

II.  All  men  are  equal  in  being  equally  expofeil 
to  vicifiitudes,  and  to  death.  To  attempt  any 
proof  of  thefe  facts  would  be  nugatory  and  ridicu- 
lous. But  the  confequences  to  be  deduced  from 
them,  with  refpect  to  the  light  in  which  the  differ- 
ent orders  and  defcriptions  of  men  ought  to  view 
each  other,  are  not  fo  evident,  or  at  lead  poflefs 
not  that  influence  over  the  heart,  to  which  they 
are  in  reafon  entitled.  For,  if  the  moft  exalt- 
ed of  mankind  mud,  as  well  as  the  loweft,  fubmit 
to  the  ftroke  of  death,  and  moulder  the  prey  of 
worms  in  the  grave,  if  this  event  equally  hangs 
over  his  head  every  moment,  and,  when  it  hap- 
pens, muft  ftrip  him  of  every  external  distinction  ; 
can  any  pretentions  be  more  abfurd  than  thofe  of 
pride,  which  are  folely  founded  on  a  pre-eminence 
fo  tranfient  and  uncertain  ?  For  any  one,  there- 
fore, to  value  himfelf  on  fuch  tranntory  diflincii- 
ons,  is  as  ridiculous,  as  it  would  be  for  a  traveller 


(    59    ) 

.to  imagine  himfelf  proprietor  of  everyfielcl  through 
which  he  pafled. 

Befides,  the  itatlons  which  difcriminate  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  Society,  are  by  no  means  perma- 
nently attached  to  any  number  of  individuals  that 
may    now  enjoy  them,    or  to  their  defendants. 
They  are  fubject  to  many  viciffitudes,  and  have  a 
conftan-t  tendency  to  change.     As  the  parts  of  ma- 
terial nature  are  in  perpetual  fluctuation,  and  are 
fame  times   altered  by   fecret  and   filent   decays, 
fometinaes   by   violent   convulfions,  by  tempefts, 
hurricanes,  inundations,  earthquakes  and  volcanos, 
fo  the  various    orders   of  fociety   are  expofed   to 
constant  changes,  partly    by   Sudden  and  violent 
agitations,  partly  by    thofe  fecret,     but    certain 
caufes,  which  are  continually  operating  the  exalta- 
tion or  the  depreffion  of  men.  Foreign  wars  or  do- 
mestic commotions,  lignal  calamities  or  uncommon 
profperity,  illuftrious  virtues  or  flagrant  vices,  pro- 
duce the  moft  wonderful  alterations  in  human  for- 
tunes.    Leaving  the  public  transactions  of  our  own 
times,  which  furnifh  moft  ftriking  proofs   of  this 
fad,   what    numberlefs  instances  croud   into   the 
mind  while   it  revolves  the  events  of  ancient  or 
modern  hiftory  ! 


(    <5o    ) 

Fortunafaevo  laeta  negotio  et 
Ludum  infolentem  ludere  pertinax 
Tranfmutat  incertos  honores, 
Nunc  mihi  nunc  alii  benigna*. 

Hor.  Od.  1-  iii.  29. 

There  is,  befides,  in  every  ftation  a  certain  ten- 
dency to  change,  and  the  fame  caufes  that  produc- 
ed the  elevation  of  the  higher  orders  of  men,  are 
imperceptibly  operating  alfo  in  favour  of  others 
placed  in  inferior  conditions.  As  a  projectile, 
when  it  has  reached  its  higheft  point  of  elevation, 
begins  immediately  to  defcend,  and  continues  its 
courfe  downwards  with  an  accelerated  velocity  ; 
fo  there  appears  to  be  a  certain  point  of  exaltation, 
beyond  which  human  grandeur  cannot  proceed, 
and  which,  by  being  the  termination  offplendour, 
becomes  the  beginning  of  decline,  and  of  final  pre- 
cipitation. On  the  other  hand,  as  the  feed  of  a 
tree,  from  the  moment  it  is  dropped  into  the 
ground,  is  continually  expanding,  and   receiving 

*  For  fortune  ever  changing  dame 
Indulges  her  malicious  joy, 
And  conftant  plays  her  haughty  game, 

Proud  of  her  office  to  deftroy ; 
To-day  to  me  her  bounty  flows, 
And  now  on  other*  (he  the  blifs  bcftows. 

Francis'*  Tranilation. 


(     61     ) 

from  the  earth  new  additions  to  its  growth,  till 
it  mingle  its  branches  with  the  clouds,  and  cover 
the  foil  with  its  made  j  in  like  manner,  among  the 
lower  orders  of  men,  there  are  evident  principles 
of  increafe  and  amelioration  of  their  condition, 
which  fail  not  to  operate  fuccefsfully  when  they 
are  favoured  by  opportunities. 

For,  what  are  the  vices  which  are  apteft  to  in- 
fed  elevated  and  and  affluent  circumftances  ;  and 
what  the  virtues  which  an  humble  and  hard  lot 
moft  eafily  engenders  and  cherifhes?  In  the  for- 
mer, we  often  behold  pride,  which  excites  indig- 
nation and  hatred,  and,  confequently,  combinati- 
ons to  reprefs  it.  We  behold  luxury  and  extrava- 
gance, which  wafte  rapidly  the  moil  fplendid  for- 
tunes, and  incapacitate  for  exertion  and  activity. 
We  behold  careleffnefs  and  inattention,  which  al- 
low people's  affairs  to  run  into  diforder,  and  oc- 
cafion  irreparable  confufion  at  laft.  We  often 
behold  extortion,  oppreflion,  and  flagrant  abufe 
of  power,  in  order  to  retrieve  broken  circumftan- 
ces, which  haften  the' ruin  they  are  employed  to 
prevent,  and  produce  indelible  difgrace. 

In  an  humble  and  fevere  lot,  we  frequently  fee 
humility  and  modefty,  which  never  fail  to  concili- 
ate complacency.     We  fee  patience  and  frugality, 
F 


(      62      ) 

of  which  the  former  renders  the  hardeft  conditi- 
on tolerable,  and  the  latter  draws  eafe  from  pe- 
nury. We  fee  industry,  and  a  fuccefsful  exertion 
of  abilities,  which  firft  make  men  ufeful  and  indif- 
penlibly  necefTary  even  to  their  fuperiors  ;  then 
bring  them  into  notice  and  regard  ;  and,  laftly, 
raife  them  to  trnft  and  affluence-  Thus,  while 
thofe  who  are  placed  in  the  higheft  ftations., 
fuppofing  they  have  no  exertions  to  make, 
becaufe  they  have  reached  the  pinnacle  of  human 
great nefs,  are  verging  towards  decline  and  obfcu- 
rity,  thofe  who  move  in  an  inferior  fphere,  urged 
by  their.  necelTities,  or  ftimulated  by  their  ambiti- 
on, are  making  conftant  efforts  to  rife,  watching 
every  favourable  opportunity  of  fuccefs,  and  fi- 
lently  climbing  the  fteep  from  which  the  former 
are  defcending.  Where  are  now  thofe  illuftrious 
families  that  occupy  fuch  a  remarkable  place  in 
ancient  hiftory  ?  They  are  not  furely  all  extinct ; 
their  defendants,  doubtlefs,  exift  fomewhere  up- 
on the  earth.  But  they  are  confounded  with  the 
general  mafs  of  mankind,  while  others  havearifen 
to  fliine  in  the  fphere  from  which  they  have  de- 
parted. It  is  thus  that  Divine  Providence,  which 
has,  for  the  wifeft  reafons,  eftablifhed,  an  inequa- 
lity of  ftations  and  talents  among  men,  has  by  al- 
lowing their  virtues  and  vices  to  operate  their  na- 
tural effects  of  alternate  depreflion and  exaltation, 


(     <$3     ) 

reftored  the  balance,  which  difappears  from   the 
view  of  fuperficial  obfervers* 

III.  If  we  juftly  eftimate  the  advantages  and 
inconveniencies  of  every  condition  of  life,  we  {hall 
find  that  they  nearly  balance  each  other,  that  the 
fum  ofhappinefs,  fhared  among  the  human  fpecies, 
is  divided  in  pretty  equitable  portions;  and  that 
equality  of  enjoyment  is  anotherground,  on  which 
the  different  ranks  of  fociety,  if  not  the  individuals 
that  are  placed  in  them,  are^  on  a  level.  The 
grand  difference,  in  this  refpect,  conflfts  in  what 
is  appropriated  to  no  ftation  or  fortune,  but  is  e- 
qually  open  to  them  all — internal  difpofition  and 
character  ;  which  it  is  unqueftionable,  may  be  dif- 
played  in  their  greateft  excellence,  and  enjoyed 
in  their  higheft  perfection,  in  the  loweft,  as  well 
as  in  the  mofl  elevated,  fphere.  As  the  different 
regions  of  the  globe,  however  removed  from  the 
Equator,  or  the  Poles,  enjoy  equal  meafures  of 
light  and  darknefs,  though  diftributed  in  different 
manners  ;  fo  the  different  orders  of  fociety  poffefs 
equal  portions  of  felicity,  and  are  expofed  to  equal 
pains,  though  the  modes  of  enjoyment  and  fuffer- 
ing  be  diver  fified.  If  the  honours  of  an  exalted 
ftation  are  greater  than  thofe  of  an  humble  one, 
its  duties  are  alfo  more  difficult ;  if  its  virtues  are 
more  fplendid,  its  temptations  are  more  enticing, 
F   2 


<     «4     ) 

and  its  vices  more  confpicuous;  if  its  enjoyments 
are  more  refined,  its  fufferings  are  more  acute,  and 
its  afflictions  more  durable.  Is  it  fuppufed  that 
the  burden  of  labour  is  heavier  than  that  of  indo- 
lence, or  the  pains  of  indigence  greater  than  thofe 
of  fenfuality?  Confider  that  health  cften  {miles, 
on  the  cheek  of  poverty,  while  difeafe  deforms  the 
faceof  opulence.  Do  any  imagine  that  ihefolicitude 
cf  providing  daily  fubfiftence  is  greater  than  that 
which  at teads  the  improvement,  or  the  fecurity, 
of  an  exteniive  eftate — that  the  real  wants  of  na- 
ture afford  more  anxiety  and  care,  than  the  ima- 
ginary demands  of  extravagance — that  the  evils 
which  are  really  felr,  are  greater  than  thofe 
which  diftempered  fancy  creates? — let  fuch  confi- 
der the  difcontent,  the  uneafinefs,  the  dejection, 
the  wayward  humours,  and  the  fullen  gloom, 
thatfo  often  haunt  the  great  and  the  wealthy,  and 
acknowledge  thatfleep  vifits  the  couch  of  draw, 
and  flies  from  the  bed  of  down. 

Do  any  imagine  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  pur- 
ine, with  conftancy  andfirmnefs,  the  rugged  and 
thorny  paths  of  the  humble  vale  of  life,  than  to 
maintain  the  elevated  pcfts  of  dignity  and  honour, 
in  the  midft  of  intrigue,  of  competition,  cf  cla- 
mour, and  of  all  the  uncertainty  of  favor  ?  Let 
them  reflect  on  the  folkitudes  and  the  terrors,  of 


C    *5    ) 

the  public  governor,  when  unfuccefsful  iflues  at- 
tend  his  ad  fniniftration,  when  the  tide  of  popular 
approbation  begins  to  ebb,  when  hisenemies  fpread 
difcontent  through  the  land,  reprefent  him  to  the 
people  as  the  author  of  their  calamities,  androufe 
them  to  facrifice  him  as  the  victim  of  their  fury. 
The  ftorm  often  burfts  on  the  palace,  when  it  paf- 
fes  inoffenfively  over  the  cottage ! 

IV.  All  men  are  equal  in  having  fome  peculiar 
duty  to  difcharge,  fome  peculiar  advantages  for 
the  exhibition  of  correfponding  virtues,  fome  pe- 
culiar temptations  to  correfponding  vices,  and  in 
being  placed  in  a  courfe  of  probation  for  a  future 
and  final  ftate.  If  the  duties  of  each  ftation  are 
properly  difcharged,  its  virtues  proportionably 
difplayed,  and  its  temptations  furmounted,  it  is 
difficult  to  fay  whether  the  greateft  praife  is  due 
to  the  fuperior  or  inferior  ranks  of  fociety.  If 
the  duties  or  the  virtues  of  either  are  neglected, 
or  its  temptations  allowed  to  prevail,  the  blame 
is  equal  on  both  fides,  although  the  punifhments 
are  frequently  diftributed  very  unequally  under 
human  governments.  That  all  men  are  at  pre* 
fent  placed  in  a  preparatory  ftate  for  a  future  ex- 
iftence,  both  natural  and  revealed  religion  concur 
in  evincing.  It  is  no  lefs  evident,  from  the  ex- 
ternal principles  by  which  the  divine  government 


(    66     ) 

is  adminiftered,  that  the  characters  which  men 
have  acquired  in  the  prefent  period  of  being,  will 
be  the  only  meafures  of  their  future  fate,  and 
that  all  thofe  diftindions,  which  are  wholly  ex- 
ternal, will  then  <lifappear  forever!  If  any  re- 
gard is  then  paid  to  the  different  ftaiions  which 
men  have  occupied  here  below,  it  will  only  be  in 
order  to  determine  how  far  they  have  difcharged 
the  duties  of  them,  and  what  degree  of  merit, 
or  demerit,  is  to  be  affigned  to  each  individual, 
according  to  the  talents  he  pollened,  and  the  op- 
portunities tie  enjoyed  for  the  practice  of  every 
virtue.  Here  all  men  are  placed  on  the  moll  per- 
fect equality,  have  the  fame  hopes,  the  fame  fears, 
the  fame  pleas  to  urge,  the  lame  titles  toproduce, 
or  rather  are  levelled  by  the  fame  incapacity  of  all 
merit,  but  what  is  derived  from  the  clemency  of 
the  Great  Judge,  operating  through  the  plan  of 
falvation  he  has  eftablifhed.  With  his  eyes  turned 
to  this  fcene,  with  any  adequate  impreilion  of  this 
awful  confummation  on  his  heart,  (and  mad  mult 
he  be  to  whofe  mind  fuch  thoughts  are  never  pre- 
fent !)  can  any  one  deny  the  equality  of  mankind, 
nor  perceive  the  empty  titles,,  and  tinfelfplendors 
and  idle  pageants  of  this  tranfitory  period,  fwim- 
ining  before  his  fight,  and  finally  difappeai  ing, 
like  the  dreams  which  occupy  his  fancy  in  fleep, 
but  fade  and  are  forgotten  when  he  opens  hi* 
eyes,  and  again  enjoys  the  reality  of  things. 


A  N 


E    S    S    A    Y,    &c. 


BOOK     II. 


(     *9     ) 

A  N 

ESSAY,      &c. 

BOOK       II. 

What  are  the  RIGHTS  refulting  from  the  Natural 
EQUALITY  of  MEN  > 


CHAPTER      I. 

Cf  the  MANNER  in  which  we  acquire  our  NOTION 
of  RIGHTS* 

A  N  the  difcuflion  of  moral  and  metaphyseal 
fubjects,  hardly  any  thing  has  occasioned  greater 
obfeunty,  and,  of  confequence,  more  violent  dis- 
putes, than  the  ambiguity  of  terms,  and  the  vague 
and  indeterminate  ideas  annexed  to  them  by  dif- 
ferent parties.  Of  this  no  word  can  afford  a  more 
ftrikmg  mftance  than  the  term  right,  efpecially 
when  applied  to  denote  a  moral  capacity  to  acl. 


(     70     ) 

topojjefs,  or  to  demand,  in  certain  circumftances-- 
Of  this  the  notion  will.be  found  to  be  as  various, 
as  the  philofophical  or  religious  fyftems  which 
men  have  adopted,  the  profeflions  which  they 
have  embraced,  the  ftations  which  they  occupy, 
or  the  company  they  frequent.  Although  peo- 
ple may  agree  in  fome  general  and  indefinite  no- 
tions of  right,  yet,  in  the  peculiar  ideas  they  en- 
tertain with  regard  to  its  application  to  all  the 
particular  objects  of  human- action  and  purfuit,  it 
will  be  found  that  their  conceptions  are  not  redu- 
cible to  any  determinate  iiandard.  We  are  not, 
on  this  account,  however,  to  imagine  that  the 
rights  of  men  are  indefinable,  or  that  there  are 
not  general  claffes  to  which  they  may  be  reduced. 
For,  although  the  private  rights  of  individuals 
muft  vary  according  to  their  different  circumftan- 
ces  and  relations,  there  are  ftill  certain  and  per- 
manent principles  on  which  they  are  founded,  and 
from  which  they  mult  be  deduced,  in  order  to 
diflinguit'h  them  from  thofe  powers  which  fraud 
iecretly  obtains,  or  violence  openly  ufurps.  Un- 
lefs  this  were  the  cafe,  laws  and  obligations  would 
be  unmeaning  words,  and  power  the  only  arbiters 
of  right  and  wrong. 

Without  entering  at  prefent  into  any  abftrufe 
and  refined  fpeculations  concerning  the  foundation 


(     71     ) 

of  moral  obligation,  I  mall  only  obferve,  that  we 
feem,  in  general,  to  denominate  that  right  which 
has  a  tendency  to  promote  the  univerfalhappinefs 
of  mankind,  or  that  of  the  individual  himfelf, 
when  it  is  not  repugnant  to  the  more  extenfive 
intereft,  whether  of  the  whole  fpecies,  or  of  the 
fmaller  communities  into  which  the  fpecies  is  di- 
vided. To  thefe  two  general  heads,  namely,  ten- 
dency to  general,  and  tendency  to  particular  hap- 
pinefs,  when  properly  limited,  it  will  be  found 
that  every  thing  juft,  and  honorable,  and  praise- 
worthy, in  human  fentiments  and  conduct  is  ulti- 
mately referable.  Whoever  does,  or  poffeffes,  or 
demands,  what  is  conducive  to  the  common  good, 
or  to  his  ownintereft  in  confiftency  with  this,  that 
he  mould  do,  or  poffefs,  or  demand,  we,  fay  he  has 
a  right  to  do,  to  pqffefs  or  to  demand,  it. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  only  notions  we  can  form 
to  ourfelves  of  happinefs  muft  be  derived  from 
thofe  original  principles  of  our  nature,  by  which 
certain  objects  are  conflituted  the  means  of  fatis* 
faction  and  pleafure,  and  others  the  caufes  of  un- 
eafinefs  and  pain.  The  former  become,  on  that 
account,  deferable,  and  the  latter,  difagreeahk  and 
odious.  By  implanting  thefe  dehres  and  averfions 
in  the  foul  of  man,  the  Creator  evidently  intend- 
ed that  they  mould  be  indulged  within  the  limits 


(     72     ) 

he  has  prescribed  to  them,  and,  in  order  todifco- 
ver  thefe  limits,  has  fuperadded  the  noble  faculty 
of  reafon.  Accordingly,  there  fcems  annexed  to 
every  natural  dejire  and  propenfity  of  the  heart,  a 
certain  feeling  of  a  right  to  its  indulgence.  The 
original  propenfities  and  deilres  fpring  up  fponta- 
neoufty  in  the  foul,  and  impel  it  to  action.  In 
children,  thefe  are  the  firft  ftimulants  to  motion 
and  activity,  and,  as  they  are  ftill  undirected  by 
the  higher  principles  of  our  nature,  and  by  the 
improvements  of  experience,  conftitute  their  on- 
ly notions  of  right*  As  the  inferior  animals  are 
immediately  carried  by  nature  towards  thofe  ob- 
jects which  are  adapted  to  fatisfy  their  inftinctive 
principles ;  fo  men,  in  the  firft  period  of  their  ex- 
iftence,  greedily  defire  and  feize  whatever  their 
appetites  or  paihons  point  out  to  them  as  agreea- 
ble, and  confider  it  as  an  injury  to  withhold  from 
them  the  indulgence;  butfuchis  the  beautiful  or- 
der eftablifhed  in  the  human  constitution,  that  ma- 
ny of  thefe  propen'ities  limit  and  balance  each  o- 
ther,  fo  that  the  immoderate  indulgence  of  one 
prevents  that  fatisfaction  of  others,  which  is  alfo 
a  neceiTary  ingredient  of  happinefs.  Different 
pains  and  inconveniencies,  foon  experienced. from 
unbridled  propenfities,  fuggeftthe  neceinty  of  mo- 
deration and  i'elf-command.  The  pleafures  and 
the  advantages  cf  feciety  attach  men  to  their  fpe- 


(     73     ) 

cies,  and  point  out,  at  the  fame  time,  the  necefli, 
ty  of  regulating  their  condu&infuch  a  manner  as 
to  prevent  their  defires  and  purfuits  from  encroach- 
ing on  the  equally  natural  defires  and  purfuits  of 
others. 

Reafon,  recollecting  the  paft,  and  anticipating 
the  future,  eftabliihes  fuch  rules  of  action  and  en- 
joyment as  unite  the  perfection  and  happinefs  o£ 
the  individual  with  the  general  inter  eft  of  the 
fpecies,  aad  convert  the  harmonious  movements 
of  the  whole  focial  body  into  the  moft  efficacious 
means  of  promoting  the  happinefs  of  all  its  mem- 
bers of  whatever  rank  or  degree.  The  moral 
faculty,  furveying  fuch  a  beautiful  and  falutary 
arrangement, fan ctions  it  with  its  approbation,  and 
decrees  that  every  human  being  is  bound  to  act 
and  to  enjoy  in  conformity  to  the  principles  of  this 
fyftem.  The  various  relations  and  circumftances 
of  men  being  confidered  and  defined,  general  max- 
ims are  formed,  which  are  denominated  the  laws 
of  nature*  As  the  human  conftitution  is  the  work 
of  the  fupreme  Creator,  whatever  is,  by  juft  in- 
ference, deducible  from  this  conftitution,  as  a  rule 
of  conduct  to  man,  is  as  juftly  held  to  be  a  divine 
law,  as  if  the  Omnipotent  Legiflator  had  proclaim- 
ed it  with  the  moft  audible  voice.  From  thefe 
general  laws,  various  rights  are  deduced  compe- 
G 


(     74     ) 

tent  to  men,  whether  as  inherent  in  their  com- 
mon nature,  or  as  belonging  to  thofe  peculiar  re- 
lations in  which  they  are  placed,  by  the  neceffary 
arrangements  of  fociety. 

In   this  manner,   the  notions  of  the  different 
rights  of- men  are  acquired* 


(    75    ) 


CHAPTER       II. 

The  two  grand  divisions  of  rights  which  flow  from 
the  Natural  equality  of  mankind. 


JL  ROM  the  fliort  deduction  contained  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  joined  to  what  has  been  efta- 
blifhed  in  the  iirft  book,  it  is  evident  that  there  are 
certain  natural  rights ,  which  cannot  be  infringed, 
without  overturning  the  foundations  of  human 
fociety,  and  that  there  are  others  which  be- 
long only  to  certain  defcriptions  of  men, 
in  confequence  of  that  focial  order  which 
is  necefTary  for  the  general  felicity.  The  for- 
mer are  to  be  considered  as  the  original  conditions 
of  the  focial  compact ;  the  latter,  as  the  means  by 
which  it  is  to  be  executed ;  and  both  flow  from 
that  idea,  of  equality  of  obligation  which  we  have 
above  illuftrated. 

In  the  firft.  place,  there  are  certain  principles 
fo  ftrongly  interwoven  with  the  human  frame, 
fo  intimately  blended  with  its  efience,  fo  efficient 
of  all  that  can  be  called  human,  that  the  violation 
of  them  cannot  be  regarded  in  any  other  light 
G2 


(    76    ) 

than  in  that  of  a  degradation,  nay,  an  entire  ex- 
tinction of  the  diftinctive  attributes  of  the  human 
character.  Of  confequence,  every  man  fiipulates, 
by  entering  into  fociety  with  his  fpecies,  that  the 
enjoyments  grounded  on  thefe  principles,  or,  in 
©:her  words,  the  rights  which  attach  to  them,  as 
the  gifts  of  God  to  his  rational:  creatures,  mall  be 
maintained  to  him  inviolate  ;  and  referves  tohim- 
felf  the  privilege  of  defending  them  at  ail  hazards, 
whenever  it  is  attempted  to  wreft  them  from  him. 
For,  as  every  human  being  is  a  conflituent  mem- 
ber of  the  focial  body,  he  is,  while  he  difcharges 
the  duties  incident  to  his  peculiar  capacity,  enti- 
tled, equally  with  every  other,  to  the  grand  pre- 
rogatives of  human  nature,  which  civil  fociety  is 
intended  to  maintain  and  improve.  He  is  as  ne- 
ceffary,  as  the  moft  diflinguilhed  of  mankind,  to 
the  general  perfection  and  felicity,  and  he  contri- 
butes to  it  that  portion  which  his  abilities  enable 
him  to  furnifh.  The  rights,  therefore,  which 
are  indifpenlibly  neceffary  to  the  prefervation  and 
happinefc  of  each  individual,  in  whatever  rank  or 
fituation  he  may  be  placed,  muft  equally  belong 
to  all,  and  can  never  fuffer  the  fmalleft  diminuti- 
on from  any  claims  or  prerogatives  attached  to  the 
diftinctions  of  fortune,  of  rank,  or  of  talents. 
They  are  the  neceffary  appendages  of  that  equa- 
lity y  whichfubfifts  among  all  men  aniidft  the  divex- 


(     77     ) 

fities  which  fociety  and  civilifation  have  intro- 
duced. 

I  mall  firft  briefly  enumerate  and  explain  the  in- 
herent and  original  rights  of  human  nature,  which 
•qually  belong  to  all  men  without  exception ; 
and,  fecondly,  thofe  adventitious  rights,  which 
belong  only  to  particular  defcriptions  of  men,  as 
chara&erifed,  whether  by  particular  talents,  or 
by  particular  fituations  in  civil  life,  but  equally 
to   all  to  whom  thefe  defcriptions  are  applicable. 


G3 


(     78     7 


CHAPTER        III. 

Cfthe  original  and  inherent  rights  of  human 

NATURE. 


i.E 


i VERY  innocent  member  of  fociety  has  a 
perfefl   right  to  life,  and  to    the  integrity  of  his 
body.     No  principle  is  more  deeply  engraved  in 
the  conftitution  of  all  animals,  than  that  of  felf- 
prefervation.     Every  living  creature  has  an  ab- 
horrence  of  diffolution,    and    a  ftrong  averfion 
from  pain,  which  is  a  ftimulant  (till  more  power- 
ful than  the  love  of  pleafure  ;  becaufe  the  remo- 
val of  evil  is  the  nrft  ftep  towards  enjoyment.  No- 
thing excites  the  deteftation  of  mankind  more  than 
an  unprovoked  attempt  on  life,  or  even  violent  af- 
iault,  when  no  more  is  intended  than  to  wound, 
or  to  mutilate.     Befides,  no  man  can  be  ufeful  to 
fociety,  but  in  as  far  as  his  life  is  preferved  and  fe- 
cured,  and  bodily  health  and  vigour  are  neceffary 
to  difchargethe  moft  important  focial  duties.  The 
right  to  thefeis  facredand  inviolable,  and,  when- 
ever they  are  unjuftly  affauhed,  every  man  is  en* 


(     79    ) 

titled  to  defend  them  even  by  the  (laughter  of  the 
aggreflbr,  when  every  other  means  of  fecurity  is 
removed.  In  this  right  is  evidently  included  that 
of  the  prefer vation  of  chaftity  when  attacked. 

II.  Every  man  has  a  perfect  right  to  the  full 
fruits  of  his  own  honeft  ingenuity  and  labour. 
The  Creator,  by  beftowingon  every  perfon  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  corporeal  or  mental  ability,  plain- 
ly intended  that  it  ihould  be  exercifed.  To  this 
exe'rcife  men  are  impelled  by  the  ftimulants  of 
pleafure,  and  of  pain*  Reafon>  which  enables 
mankind  to  anticipate  futurity,  fuggefts,  from  the 
recollection  of  former  wants,  the  neeeflity  of  pro- 
viding for  them  when  they  fhall  again  recur- 
The  natural  productions,  which  may  be  render- 
ed fubfervient  to  the  ufe  of  man,  necefTarily  be- 
come the  property  of  the  firft  occupier,  becaufe, 
if  they  were  appropriated  to  none,  they  would  be 
ufelefs  to  all ;  at  leaft,  fuch  of  them  as  could  af- 
ford no  prefent  ufe  would  remain  neglect- 
ed and  unimproved.  For  no  man  will  beftow  la- 
bour and  time  on  that  from  which  he  is  to  receive 
no  profit.  Men  are  ftrongly  afFecled  by  a  tender 
folicitude  for  their  offspring  and  near  connections, 
to  whom  they  wifh  to  impart  a  fhare  of  their  fu- 
perfluities  during  life,  and,  at  death,  to  tranfmit 
their  entire  potfeifioiis.     They  are  inflamed  with 


f  80  ) 

a  thirft  of  honour  and  applaufe,  and  eager  to  ob- 
tain them  by  the  difplay  of  ufeful,  of  elegant,  or 
of  f  iiblime,  talents.  Befides,  while  men  mutual- 
ly fupply  each  other  with  what  they  want,  for 
an  equivalent,  fociety  is  more  clofely  cemented, 
by  a  conftant  interchange  of  the  various  products 
of  induftry,  of  art,  and  of  wealth ;  and,  by  the, 
different  conditions  of  men  in  point  of  fortune^ 
opportunity  is,  as  above  obferved,  afforded  for  the 
exercife  of  many  virtues,  which  could  not  other- 
wife  exift.  Man's  double  capacity,  as  an  individu- 
al, and  as  a  member  of  fociety,  is  thus  beft  pre- 
ferved,  and  his  felfifh,  as  well  as  his  facial,  pro- 
penfities  arc  gratified-  In  fact,  the  fame  means 
that  enable  him  moft  amply  to  indulge  the  former, 
alfo  qualify  him  for  fatisfying  moft  effectually  the 
latter.  By  the  exercife  and  cultivation  of  all  his 
faculties,  and  by  the  improvement  of  the  opportu- 
nities he  enjoys,  he  beft  promotes  his  own  private 
happinefs,  and,  in  the  fame  manner,  he  contri- 
butes moft  to  the  public  good.  As  the  perfection 
and  folidity  of  all  the  parts  of  a  building  produce 
the  folidity  and  perfection  of  the  whole  ;  fo,  in  hu- 
man fociety,  the  profperity  of  all  its  members  in 
their  different  relations  and  circumftances,  produ- 
ces the  fum  of  general  happinefs.  Notwithftand- 
ing  therefore,  the  Utopian  fyftem  of  a  community 
of  goods,  which  foine  political  projectors,  fixing 


(     Si     ) 

their  eyes  on  partial  views  of  advantage  and  in- 
convenience, have  endeavoured  to  recommend, 
and  fome  fmaller  focieties  have  exemplified,  it  is 
undoubted  that  both  public  and  private  happinefs 
require  that  the  right  of  property  mould  be  fa- 
credly  maintained. 

This  right  implies  not  only  that  pofTeffions,  al- 
ready lawfully  acquired,  mould  remain  the  invio- 
lable property  of  their  poffeflbrs,  but  alfo  that 
every  honeft  and  fair  mean  of  acquiring  mould  be 
equally  open  to  all  who  are  placed  in  the  fame 
circumftances.  It  requires  that  a  fair  field  be 
granted  for  the  e<ercife  of  every  ufefulgnd  orna- 
mental talent,  and  that  its  natural  rewards  be 
not  with  held  from  it.  Partial  and  narrow  fyftems 
of  policy,  whereby  the  intereft  of  a  few  is  only 
confulted,  frequently  cramp  genius,  and  reftrain 
induftry,  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the  common 
good. 

Thefe,  however,  with  whatever  pretexts  they 
may  be  coloured,  are  juitly  to  be  accounted  viola- 
tions of  the  lacred  right  of  property,  v/hich  re- 
gards not  only  what  men  already  honeftly  poiTefs, 
but  alio,  what  they  may  honeitly  obtain.  The 
powers  of  their  bodies,  and  the  faculties  of  their 
minds,  are  the  only  property  which  men  receive 


(    «a    ) 

from  nature.  The  exercife  of  thefe  on  the  vari- 
ous natural  productions,  introduced  the  adventitU 
ous  rights  to  thefe  objects,  and  inheritance  and 
contracts  transferred  them  from  their  original  pro- 
prietors to  their  fuccefiors.  But  the  foundation  of 
ali  property  is  the  common  right  to  the  earth  and 
its  productions,  which  God  has  granted  to  man^ 
kind,  together  with  the  peculiar  appropriation, 
which  every  one  made  of  fome  portion  of  thefe  to 
himielf,  by  the  ufe  of  his  mental  and  corporeal 
powers.  It  is  abfurd,  therefore,  that  adventitious- 
rights  fhould.  be  facred,  while  the  primary  means, 
of  acquiring  thefe  rights  may  be  wantonly  cir- 
cumfcribed- 

III.  All  men  have  an  equal  right  to  a  fair  and 
honefl  character,  till  it  has  been  proved  that  they 
have  juftly  forfeited  it.  The  love  of  character 
is  deeply  implanted  in  the  human  breaft,  and  as  it 
can  only  be  extinguished  with  the  extinction  of  in- 
tegrity ;  fo  it  is  ftrong  in  proportion  to  the  ftrength 
of  virtuous  and -elevated  fentiments.  The  lofs  of 
reputation,  wounding  one  of  the  moft  lively  feel- 
ings of  the  human  heart,  is  one  of  the  greateft 
calamities  in  life.  With  the  lofs  of  character  ma- 
ny other  evils  are  unavoidably  connected,  which> 
while  they  deftroy  the  private  happinefs  of  the 
individual,  alfo  fruftrate  his  public  utility.     Th* 


(    83:    ) 

Aicceftof  a  perfon  in  the  world,  whether  in  the 
improvement  of  his  fortune,  or  in  the  exercife  of 
his  abilities,  depends  greatly  on  the  opinion  which 
is  entertained  of  his  integrity.  His  ufefulnefs  to 
fociety  depends  chiefly  on  the  confidence  which  his 
fellow  men  can  repofe  in  him*  When  any  man's 
honefty  is  queftioned,  his  talents,  far  from  being 
objefts  of  complacency,  are  converted  into  fources 
of  terror,  and  mankind  naturally  combine  in  or* 
der  to  deprive  them  of  thofe  opportunities  of  ex- 
ertion, which  feem  to  threaten  their  own  fafety. 

Fame,  ordiftihguifhed  confideration  and  refpecl:, 
belong  only  to  eminent  abilities,  virtues  or  ftations* 
But  the  character  of  honefty  belongs  equally  to  all 
who  faithfully  difcharge  every  fOcial  and  civil 
obligation.  Thofe  wli6,  in  every  fituation  and 
circumflance,  whether  of  exaltation  or  of  obfcuri- 
*ty,  carry  along  with  them  purity  of  heart  and  in- 
tegrity of  conduct,  meet  on  the  equal  footing  of 
good  men,  and  are  equally  entitled  to  all  the  en- 
joyment, advantage,  and  confideration,  which  that 
character  juftly  claims*  and  cannot  fail  to  poflefs> 
if  not  clouded  by  mifreprefentation,  or  ftained  by 
calumny.  The  moft  illuftrious  abilities,  or  the 
moft  exalted  ftation,  give  not,  of  themfelves,  a 
better  title  to  a  fair  and  fpotlefs  character,  than 


(     84     ) 

the  mofl:  moderate  parts,  or  the  moft  humble  cir- 
cumftances.  This  right,  till  it  is  loft  by  vicious 
action,  extends  to  all  conditions  and  ranks  with- 
out exception. 


(    85    ) 

CHAPTER        IV. 

THE    SAME    SUBJECT    CONTINUED. 


IV.   J_J  VERY  man  has  a  p  erf  eft  right  to  liberty, 
or  to  acl:  in  whatever  manner  hepleafes,  provided 
he  offers  no  injury  to  others,  and  violates  no  law 
enacted  by  the  public  authority  of  the  civil  fociety 
to  which  he  belongs*     As  foon  as  we  form  the  no- 
tion of  a  rational  agent,  freedom  immediately  en^ 
ters  into  the  conception,  and  all  happinefs  and  all 
virtue   reft   on  its    foundation.     For,  as    virtue 
confifts  in  the  proper  ufe  of  all  our  faculties,  or 
in  that  conduct  which  is  fuited  to  the  human  na- 
ture  and  condition;  fo  happinefs  confifts   in  the 
pofTeflion  of  "thofe  enjoyments,  of  which  nature 
has  rendered  us  capable,  and  which  the  right  ufe 
of  reafon  enables  us  to  obtain.     But  how  can  lie, 
who  is  deprived  of  the  power  of  regulating  his 
own  actions,  and  of  determining  and  directing  his 
purfuits,  either  exert  his  faculties  in   fuch  a  man* 
ner  as  is  beft  adapted  to  their  ends,  orpurfue  thofe 
enjoyments,  with  the  greateft  vigour,   to  which 
H 


(     86    J 

he  has  afiigned  the  higheft  value  ;  how   can  he, 
who  is  fubjected  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  another, 
contribute  his  portion  to  the  common   order   and 
felicity  ;  which  refults  from  the  combined  efforts 
of  all  directed  to  this  glorious  and  comprehenfive 
end — from  the  combined  exertions  of  knowledge, 
wifdom,  fkilJ,  ingenuity,    dexterity,    art,   labour, 
refolution,  and  vigour,  ihared  among  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  focial  body  ?  Supprefs  the  juft  exertion 
of  any  of  thefe  feparate  portions,  juft  fo  much   is 
cut  off  from  the  general  perfection  and  happinefs, 
and,  while  individuals    are  opprefTed,  the  public 
fuffers.      Subject  them  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  one, 
or  of  a  few,  all  the  light,  and  invention,  and  ener- 
gy, which  refultfrora  the  free,  but  well  regulat- 
ed, efForts  of  all  acting  in  harmonious  concert  are 
gone — all  that  variety  of  talent,  of  deflgn,  of  pur- 
fuit,  and  of  operation,  which  embellifh,   and  im- 
prove, and  ftrengthen,   human  fociety,  is  extin- 
guifhed — and  the  whole  focial  mafs,  fubordinated 
to  one  feeble  and  impotent  will,   ever  influenced 
by  narrow  and  contracted  views,  or  by  cloudy  paf- 
fions,  either  pines  in  a  paffive  lethargy,  or,  if  it 
is  called  into  action  by  extraordinary  ftimulants, 
exhaufh  its  ftcength  by  its  efForts,    while  their 
produce   is    wholly  drawn  off  by  the  privileged 
part;  fimilar  to  thofe  aged  trunks  on  which  we 
behold  a  few  of  the  higher  brandies  retaining  their 


(     8;     ) 

fap  and  verdure,  while  the  tree  itfelf  is  rotten, 
and  finking  fpeedily  to  dtift.  Thus  the  preferva- 
tion  of  liberty  is  neceffary  to  the  attainment  of  pub- 
lic, as  well  as  of  private,  felicity  ;  nor  can  it  ever 
be  fuppofed  that  any  human  being,  whofe  judg- 
ment is  found,  and  who  has  not  been  corrupted 
by  long  habits  of  fervitude,  would  either  expli- 
citly or  tacitly  relinquish  what  is  neceffary  to  eve- 
ry enjoyment  cf  human  nature,  and  without 
which,  fociety  kfelf  is  his  greateft  curie.  In 
fhort,  liberty  and  human  nature  are  infeparable ; 
to  deftroy  the  former,  is  to  annihilate  the  latter 
•— is  to  annmil  ate  every  notion  of  duty,  and  vir- 
tue, and  happinefs,  beyond  what  is  merely  fenfu- 
al  and  brutiih. 

It  is  no  wonder  then,  that  the  love  of  freedom 
mould  be  ftrong  and  vigorous  in  the  bread,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  elevation  of  fentiment,  the  fenfe 
of  honour,  the  regard  for  virtue,  with  which 
each  individual  is  endowed,  and  that,  by  every 
generous  and  feeling  foul,  flavery  mould  be  deem- 
ed the  greateft  of  human  evils.  Bafe,  indeed, 
and  corrupted,  and  broken  by  habits  of  fervile 
iubje&ion,  muft  that  man  be,  who  can  confider 
himfelf  as  the  property  of  his  fellow  creature, 
and  feels  no  indignation  at  the  tyrant  who  reduc- 
es him  to  this  deipicable  condition,  and  who,  de- 
H2 


C     M    ) 

grading  the  rational  creation  of  God,  which  he 
has  firft  debafed  in  his  own  foul,  outrages  heaven 
while  he  domineers  upon  earth.  Few  of  mankind 
are  fo  degenerate  as  to  have  left  all  fenfe  of  liber- 
ty, and  of  the  native  dignity  of  man.  For  al- 
though they  may  fubmit  in  filence  to  a  defpot,  yet 
they  abhor  him  in  their  hearts  :  and,  when  they 
can  do  it  with  fafety,  would  lay  hold  of  the  firfi 
opportunity  of  making  off  the  yoke.  The  namej 
of  mailer  and  flave  annihilate  all  claims  of  duty 
all  voluntary  offerings  of  affe&ion,  and  exhibit 
man  to  man  in  a  ftate  of  hoftility,  where  power 
is  the  only  right,  and  terror  the  only  obligation** 


*  From  tkefe  confederations  it  may  be  eftabliflied  as  a  certain 
fruth,  that  arbitrary  governments,  in  whatever  hands  they  may 
be  placed,  can  never  effectually  fecure  the  happinefs  of  rrankind. 
With  whatever  wifdom  and  goodnefs  a  prince  may  be  endowed-, 
it  is  impoflible,  from  the  narrownefs  of  the  human  mind,  that  his 
views  can  extend  to  every  department  of  civil  fociety ;  aHd  he 
will  be  unavoidably  expofed  to  impofition  from  fome  quarter  or  o- 
ther.  His  adminiflration,  of  confequence,  can  never  be  marked 
vsith  that  extenfive  beneficence,  which  remits  from  forms  of  go- 
vernment which  are  calculated  to  collect  into  one  point  the  wifdom, 
ingenuity,  and  vigour,  which  are  difTufed  through  the  whole  fo- 
oial  body.  Befides,  as  it  is  the  intention  of  civil  iociety  to  pro- 
mote the  happinefs  of  all  its  members,  it  is  impoflible  that  its 
ends  can  be  obtained,  when  the  fenfe  of  freedom,  which  isfo  effen- 
tial  an  ingredient  of  human  felicity,  is  either  completely  cxtin- 
guifhed,  ©r  deprived  of  its  enjoyments- 


C    «9    ) 

Notwithstanding  this  averfton  to  fervitude, 
and  this  love  of  freedom,  fo  ftrongly  implanted 
in  the  human  breaft,  it  muft  be  confefled,  that 
there  is  in  mankind  both  an  aftoniftiing  propenfity 
to  tyrannize,  and  a  wonderful  facility  in  fubmit- 
ting  to  enormous  power.  The  freedom  which 
men  claim  to  themfelves,  they  are  not  willing  to 
grant  to  others)  and  the  principle  which  infpires 
the  wifh  of  independence,  produces  the  exercife 
of  opprefllon.  The  love  of  pre-eminence  and 
power  rejects  competition  and  equality;  fond  at- 
tachment to  one's  own  opinions  ftimulates  men  to 
pre fcribe  them  as  rules  to  others;  pofleflion  con- 
ftantly  aims  at  enlarging  its  bounds  :  elevation 
and  authority  have  a  perpetual  tendency  upwards, 
and,  in  their  afcent,  deprefs  thofe  parts  through 
which  they  move — the  generality  of  mankind, 
long  accuftomed  to  admire  fplendour  and  wealth, 
or  eminent  talents,  readily  fubmit  to  their  domi- 
nion ;  and  voluntary  homage  often  begins  the  fub- 
jection,  which  is  at  laft  exacted  as  a  right.  Ha- 
bits  of  fervitude  debilitate  the  fenfe  of  freedom, 
and  the  rigours  of  oppreffion  are  frequently  ne- 
ceflary  to  roufe  it.  It  is  thus,  that  the  love  of  in- 
dependence ftimulates  to  encroach  on  the  rights 
of  others,  and  that  fuch  encroachment  is  fo  fre- 
quently fuccefsfnl. 

H3 


(     9°     ) 

On  this  account,  all  civil  liberty  is  limited  by 
thefe  two  conditions,  abftinence  from  injury  to 
others,  and  fubmiffion  to  the  laws  enacled  by  the 
authority  of  political  fociety.  Whoever  injures 
others  is  not  a  free  man,  but  a  tyrant,  and,  if  he 
is  free,  others  are  flaves*.  As  it  is  the  grand  de- 
fign  of  civil  fociety  to  fecure  men  from  that  in- 
juftice  and  violence  which  would  foon  fubjecl:  all 
to  the  raoft  powerful,  it  is  neceflary  that  the  pub- 
lic authority  ihould  circumfcribe  the  actions  of 
each  individual.  While  all  are  equally  fubjecl:  to 
this  authority,  and  the  collective  power  of  the 
whole  community  is  centered  in  this  point,  it  fol- 
lows as  a  neceflary  confequence  of  that  equality, 
which  confifts  in  the  relation  that  all  equally  bear 
to  the  focial  body,  that  the  actions  of  each  fliould 
be  directed  and  limited  by  this  relation.  No  mem. 
ber  is  fubjecl  to  another,  confidered  as  a  member, 
but  every  member  is  fubject  to  the  whole  in  its 
collective  capacity,  and,  when  this  capacity  is  tranf- 
ferred  to  any  part,  or  to  any  number  of  parts  of 
the  focial  body,  thefe  deriving  their  pre-eminence 
and  authority  from  the  whole  fociety,  have  a  right 
to  govern  all  its  members,  while  in  every  inftance 


*  Hence  the  propriety  of  the  infcription  libertas  oir  the  pr» 
fons  of  Geeoa.  fcte  Rouffc-uu—  Comrat  Social—and  Howard  o* 
Prifcns. 


C     9'     ) 

in  which  they  appear  as  members  themfelves,  and 
ad,  not  in  a  public,  but  in  a  private,  capacity, 
they  are  equally  fubject  to  the  common  will,  ex- 
prefTed  by  public  laws,  with  all  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  community.  In  civil  fociety,  it  is  this 
alone  that  maintains  that  equality  which  fubfifts 
among  all  its  different  members,  notwithstanding 
the  diverfities  which  fortune,  rank,  or  talents,  have 
introduced.  For,  as  thefe  only  diverfify  the  man- 
ner in  which  each  is  to  contribute  his  portion  to 
the  public  good  ;  fo,  when  all  are  equally  fubject 
to  common  laws,  all  are  levelled  by  this  common 
fubjection,  and  every  one  is  reftricted  to  that  line 
of  conduct,  which  is  neceflary  for  the  prefervati- 
on  and  welfare  of  the  political  fyftem.  Unlimit- 
ed freedom  is  unattainable  not  only  in  civil  fociety, 
but  in  every  fpecies  of  alTociation  whatev/.r,  be- 
caufe  the  actions  of  every  individual  of  the  fociety 
are  limited  by  the  actions  of  all  the  reft,  and  by  the 
general  defign  and  conditions  of  afTociation  itfelf. 
The  grand  defign  of  every  focial  union  is  to  ob- 
tain the  co-operation  of  all  its  members  for  the 
common  good.  It  is  hence  incumbent  on  every- 
one of  them,  fo  to  regulate  his  conduct,  as  to  con- 
tribute to  the  end  propofed.  Nay,  perfect  liberty, 
if,  by  that  term,  we  understand  the  unreftrained 
indulgence  of  every  defire  and  propenfity,  is  as 
inconiiftent  with  the  rational  conftitution  of  each 


C     9*     ) 

individual,  as  it  is  with  the  principles  of  civil  union* 
For  there  is  an  order  eftablifhed  by  nature  among 
all  our  defires  and  pafllons ;  and  reafon  is  given 
both  to  difcover  and  to  maintain  it.  As  the  violator 
of  civil  order  ceafes  to  be  a  citizen,  and  becomes  a 
public  enemy,  fo  he  who  violates  the  order  of  the 
moral  and  rational  nature  ceafes  to  be  a  man,  de- 
generates into  a  brute,  and  is  the  deftroyer  of  his 
own  happinefs.  As  a  man,  he  only  is  free,  who, 
delivered  from  the  yoke  of  paffion,  freely  follows 
the  dictates  of  his  nobler  faculties,  and  indulges 
every  natural  propenfity  in  confiftency  with  men- 
tal order.  In  like  manner,  civil  fociety  is  free, 
when  delivered  from  arbitrary  power,  in  what- 
ever mape  it  may  exift,  all  its  members  are  placed 
under  the  empire  and  dominion  of  laws,  enforcing 
the  gr.vnd  principles  of  political  union,  and  equal- 
ly binding  on  the  legiflators  themfelves  as  on  the 
people.  If  any  are  railed  above  law,  or  enjoy 
privileges  and  prerogatives,  which  have  no  rela- 
tion to  the  public  good,  and  are  burthenfome  to 
the  community,  in  proportion  as  they  are  advanta- 
geous, to  the  poffelfors  of  them,  the  principles  of 
civil  union  are  oppofed,  political  equality  is  fub- 
verted,  and  oppreffion,  more  or  lefs  grievous  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  fuch  inequality,  is  intro- 
duced. 


(    93    ) 

As  the  limitation  of  law  is  infeparable  from 
the  liberty  to  which  every  citizen  has  an  incon- 
teftible  right ;,  fo  this  right  implies  that,  in  every 
inftance,  neither  contrary  to  law,  nor  injurious  to 
others,  every  innocent  perfon,  who  has  reached 
the  years  of  maturity,  and  has  not  voluntarily 
fubjected  his  actions  to  the  controul  of  others, 
fhould  enjoy  the  power  of  acting  as  he  pleafes. 
Perfons  of  found  judgment,  and  of  generous  fen- 
timents,  will,  in  the  ufe  of  this  freedom,  confult 
not  only  their  own  pleafure  and  advantage,  but 
alfo, the  felicity  of  all  to  whom  their  influence  may 
extend.  Their  purfuits  will  be  characterized  by* 
a  dignity  and  beneficence,  which  will  point  them 
out  as  the  ornaments  of  fopj^ty,  and  the  objects 
of  general  admiration  and  gratitude..  Such  will 
find  their  moft  delightful  enjoyments  in  their  own 
higheft  improvement,  and  in  their  mofl  extenflve 
utility  to  others.  Men  of  inferior  capacity,  or  of 
a  meaner  turn  of  mind,  will  chiefly  devote  them- 
selves tofenfual  pleafures,  and  to  felnfh  purfuits  j 
and  thus  with-hold  from  the  public  a  great  deal 
of  benefit  which  they  might  otherwife  contribute* 
On  this  account,  however,  they  are  not  to  be  de- 
prived of  their  liberty,  as  long  as  they  remain 
within  the  bounds  of  that  innocence  which,  how- 
ever deficient  in  a  moral  and  religious  light,  is, 
fufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  public  peace,  and 


(     94    ) 

of  civil  and  political  order.  They  are  not  amen- 
able to  human,  but  to  divine  juftice  ;  and  muftbb 
called  to  account,  not  in  the  prefent,  but  in  a  fu- 
ture, world.  Argument,  perfuafion,  and  exam, 
pie,  may  be  employed ;  and  every  good  man  will 
uie  them  to  the  utmoft  of  his  power,  in  order  to 
diffuie  virtue  and  happinefs  among  his  fpecies. 
But  to  ufe  violence  for  this  purpofe,  is  both  to 
difappoint  the  end,  and  to  exhibit  an  inftance  of 
that  folly  which  is  reprobated  in  others.  Men 
may  be  conitra'mcd  to  be  harmlefs  and.  juft,  but 
not  to  he  virtuous  and  happy  ! 

In  the  right  of  liberty  is  included  the  free  ufe 
of  private  jHcrment  in  every  thing  relative  to  the 
regulation  of  conduct,  and  efpecially  to  religion> 
as  well  as  the  free  communication  of  fentiment 
within  the  bounds  above  ftated.  It  is  vain  to 
think  of  enjoying  liberty  of  action,  if  the  opini- 
ons by  which  action  is  to  be  directed  are  not  alio 
free.  In  fact,  the  right  of  private  judgment  can- 
not be  alienated  or  wrefted  from  any  human  be- 
ing by  any  power  on  earth.  The  mind  of  man, 
eonflituted  free  by  its  Creator,  will  ever  remain 
fo,  in  fpite  of  every  endeavour  to  enflave  it.  Ig- 
norance may  darken,  prejudice  reftrain,  or  cor- 
ruption pervert,  its  powers;  ftill  the  opinions 
which  it  really  embraces,  are  fuch,  as  appear  to 


(    9>,    ) 

it  the  beft,  according  to  the  light  which  it  enjoys.  - 
But  to  conceive  any  mortal  adopting  an  opinion, 
for  which  he  perceives  no  ground,  is  the  mofc 
glaring  contradiction — is  to  fuppofe  him  admit- 
ting and  rejecting  at  once  the  fame  propodtions. 
With  regard  to  religion,  in  particular,  the  right 
of  private  judgment,  and  the  freedom  of  consci- 
ence, are  to  be  maintained,  as  neceflarily  connect- 
ed with  the  equality  of  all  men,  above  eftablifh- 
ed.  For,  although  religion  ever  has  been,  and 
ever  muft  be,  the  flrongeft  bond  of  fociety,  yet 
the  Strength  of  this  bond  depends  on  the  united 
evidence  of  the  religious  opinions  which  are  adopt*, 
ed,  and  on  the  Sincerity  with  which  they  are  em- 
braced. It  is  only  when  religious  opinions  are 
both  true  in  themfelves,  and  ingenuouily  profehed, 
that  they  can  exert  any  aufpicious  influence  on  the 
actions,  of  men. 

Now,  to  perceive  truth  is  the.  operation  of  the" 
understanding.  To  embrace  it  with  becoming 
zeal,  and  to  obey  its  dictates  with  undeviating 
conftancy,  is  the  operation  of  the  heart.  The 
understanding  may  be  enlightened  by  reafon,  the 
heart  may  be  affected  by  perfuafion,  and,  in  order 
that  either  may  be  produced,  perfect  freedom  is 
necefiary.  To  convince  or  to  perfuade  by  vio- 
lence, is  the  greatefl  of  abfurdities,  is  a  manifeft 


(     96     ) 

impoflibility;  and  when  there  is  neither  conviction 
nor  perfuafion,  where  can  religion  fubfift?  Place 
it  where  it  can  only  relide — in  the  underftanding 
and  the  heart;  it  eludes  all  conftraint.  Ptemove 
it  from  this  habitation,  it  loies  its  falutary  influ- 
ence. 

As  religion,  therefore,  muft,  from  its  very  na- 
ture,  be  free,  no  man  can  have  any  right  to  dictate 
to  the  conscience  of  another*  All  men  are  equally 
entitled  to  ferve  God,  and  all  are  equally  bound  to 
ferve  him  in  J'pirit  and  in  truth.  No  man  can 
ferve  him  with  another's  fpirit  ;  and  no  man  can 
difcern  truth  with  another's  underftanding.  To 
fubject  religion  to  conftraint,  is,  of  confequence, 
to  deftroyits  eflence,  and  to  annihilate  its  falutary 
tendency.  Enthufiafm  and  bigotry,  whofe  cha- 
racter it  is  to  erect  their  own  opinions  as  ftaildards 
for  all  the  world,  and  to  violate  the  rights  of  con- 
fcience,  never  fail,  if  they  are  fuccefsful,  to  give 
birth  to  hypocrify,  as  the  heir  to  their  ufurped 
dominion.  Hence  it  is  eafy  to  account  for  the 
fmall  influence  which  religious  opinions  have  on 
the  conduct  of  their  profeiTors,  while  pure  and  un- 
dented religion  ought  naturally  to  produce  the 
moil  falutary  effects  not  only  in  rendering  men 
-wife  untofalvation,  but  in  forming  them  to  the 
practice  of  every  ibcial  and  civil  virtue.     Religion 


(     97     ) 

|l  either  believed  to  be  fomething  very  different 
from  what  it  is,  toconfift  merely  in  forms  and  ce- 
remonies, in  which  cafe  it  has  either  no  effect  at 
all  on  moral  conduct,  or  a  very  pernicious  one — 
or  men  are  conftrained  to  profefs  what  they  do 
not  believe ;  by  which  their  hearts  are  corrupted, 
and  their  actions  and  fentiments  are  at  conftant 
variance.  The  glory  of  God  is  thus  promoted  by 
•defacing  his  image  on  the  human  foul,  and  by 
transforming  his  reafonable  ftrvics  into  childiili 
pageantry  and  infignificant  pomp.  Befides,  if  any 
f'et  of  men  aflume  to  themfelves  the  power  of  pre* 
fcribing  to  others  in  religious  matters,  others 
may,  with  as  good  a  title,  do  the  fame  whenever 
they  obtain  the  power.  True  religion  may  thus 
be  fupprelTed  and  deftroyed,  without  its  profefFors 
having  any  plea  for  its  defence  whichisnot  equal- 
ly competent  to  the  moft  abfurd  fupcrftition. 
While  men  thus  domineer  in  religious  matters, 
•according  as  they  poffefs  the  power,  all  religious 
improvement  is  precluded  ;  the  wifeft  and  moft 
pious  of  men  may  be  obliged  to  fubmit,  in  obfe* 
quious  filence,  to  the  moft  ignorant  and  impious ; 
and  fuperftition,  in  all  its  hideous  forms,  is  put  on 
the  fame  footing,  and  enjoys  the  fame  advantages 
for  its  maintenance  and  propagation,  *vith  divine 
revelation  itfelf.  This  right  of  freedom  of  judg- 
ment carries  along  with  it  that  of  free  communi- 
I 


(     9*     ) 

cation  of  fentittient,  within  the  limitations  above 
laid  clown.  As  there  is  in  man  a  ftrong  natural 
propensity  to  communicate  his  feelings  and  fenti- 
ments  to  others,  fb  the  faculty  by  which  he  is  chief- 
ly enabled  to  communicate  them  is  one  of  the  moil: 
powerful  bonds  offbciety,  and  one  of  the  chief  in- 
struments of  its  improvement.  By  fupprefhng  this 
freedom  of  communication,  the  natural  equality 
of  men  is  deftroyed.  Thofe  from  whom  it  is 
wrefled  are  degraded  from  the  condition  of  mem- 
bers of  the  community,  and,  being  Gripped  of  this 
privilege,  may  be  prevented  from  contributing 
that  portion  to  the  public  good  which  it  might  en- 
able them  to  afford.  How  much  the  improve- 
ment and  felicity  of  mankind  depend  on  the  free 
diffuiion  of  knowledge,  is  too  evident  to  require 
any  proof.  Nor  is  it  lefs  certain  that  ignorance 
and  prejudice,  ever  delighting  in  darknefs,  becaufe 
their  Laponian  eyes  are  too  weak  to  endure  the 
light,  are  extremely  deflrous  of  excluding  it  from 
whatever  quarter  it  may  mine.  They  endeavour, 
therefore,  violently  to  extinguish  the  lamp  of  rea- 
fon,  and  to  iilence  the  voice  of  truth.  If  they  fuc^ 
ceed,  all  the  evils  of  barbarifm  are  perpetuated; 
if  the  precious  right  of  free  communication  of  opj* 
nion  is  maintained,  private  as  well  as  public  happi- 
nefs  is  the  reiult. 


(     99    ) 

But,  if  men  embrace  and  profefs  opinions  with 
regard  to  religion,  morals,    or   politics,   the  moil 
grofsly  falfe  and  erroneous,    are  fuch    fyftcms  to 
be  tolerated,  and  not  rather  prescribed  aseflron- 
tive  to  God,  and  pernicionsfto  men?   The  firft  in- 
quiry mud  be, whether  fuch  opinions  tend  to  over- 
turn the  principles  of  civil  fociety,  and  to  difturb 
its  order  and  peace.      If  any  are  fo  fcolifh,    or  fo 
wicked,  as  to  entertain    fentiments   fubverlive  of 
thofe  fundamental  truths   on    which   the  mutual 
obligations  of  men,    and  the   praclicc  of  all    vir- 
tue, and  civil  fociety  itfelf,  are  founded  ;   fuch  may 
be  juftly  conftraineel  to  abftain  from  the  propaga- 
tion  of  them,  or  to  remove  from  the  fociety   of 
which  they  are  members   •   or,  if  they  obftinately 
refufe  to  comply   with  a  requisition    which  felf- 
prefervation  chelates,  may  be  juftly  punimed  in  or- 
der to  deter  others  from  imitating  their  example. 
But  as  fuch  fundamental  truths  are  few,  and  uni- 
verfally  acknowledged,  fo  they  ought   not  to  be 
unneceffarily  multiplied  in  order  to  fnpprefs  the 
exercife  of  private  judgment,  or  connected  with 
other  points  in   which   diverlity   of  opinion,    far 
from  being  pernicious,  conduces  to    enlarge    die 
bounds  of  human  knowledge,  by  pouring  in  new 
light  from  various  inquiry  and  intelligence.      Be- 
fides,  as  no  fincere  profeilbr  of  any  fyftem   of  re- 
ligion or   morals  really  believes   it  impious  and 

J  a 


£    ioa    }, 

pernicious,  but,  on  the  contrary,  entertains  the 
higheft  opinion  of  its  excellence,  fuch  ought  ra- 
ther to  be  convinced  by  argument,  than  deftroy- 
ed  by  persecution,  and,  while  he  abftains  from 
actions  injurious  toothers,  it  is  unjuft  to  treat 
him  withfeverity  and  violence.  It  is  undeniable 
that  bigotry,  and  fuperftition,  and  enthufiafm,. 
whether  religious  or  civil,  have  often  produced 
the  mod  direfal  calamities  in  the  world.  But  it 
is  to  be  obferved,  that  this  has  entirely  proceeded 
from  the  principle  againft  which  I  am  now  con- 
tending, namely,  the  right  of  any  man  to  dictate 
to  the  conscience  of  another.  For  if,  on  the  moft 
important  of  all  Subjects,  men.  fupported  their 
caufe  by  argument  and  perfuafion  only,  fuperfti- 
tion, bigotry,  and  error,  would  foon  be  driven 
from  the  field,  and  true  religion  andpure  morality 
obtain  a  decisive  victory  in  every  part  of  the  world* 
But  while  different  feels  and  parties  mutually  re- 
present each  other  as  the  enemies  of  God  and 
man,  and  connect,  with  every  fpeculative  opinion, 
the  moft  important  confequences  to  the  temporal, 
as  well  as  the  eternal,  interefts  of  mankind,  ran- 
cour, and  hatred,  and  malevolence,  foon  burft 
into  the  flames  of  the  moft  virulent  animofity,  per- 
fection appears  in  her  moft  hideous  forms,  and 
the  caufe  of  God,  and  the  interefts  of  mankind, 
are  afluraed  as  pretexts  for    indulging   the   moft 


(     ioi     ) 

ferocious  paflions  of  the  human  breaft  !  If,  on  the 
one  hand,  therefore,  profeflions  evidently  lub- 
verfive  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  fociety 
have  no  claim  to  toleration;  fo,  on  the  other, 
the  greateft  caution  is  to  be  ufed  not  to  clafs,  un- 
der this  head,  opinions  which  have  no  connection 
with  the  interefts  of  civil  fociety,  but  regard  only 
theological  or  philosophical  Speculation.  I  mean 
not  that  erroneous  opinions  are  always  free  from 
blame,  becaufe  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  error 
is  not  always  the  refult  of  weaknefs  of  judgment, 
but  more  frequently  ftill  of  pride,  of  obftinacy,  or 
of  negligence-  But  as  no  man  is  mafter  of  ano- 
ther's confeience,  fo  no  man  can  claim  to  himfelf 
the  judgment  of  this  point  with  regard  to  ano- 
ther, but  in  as  far  as  opinion  is  manifefted  by  acti- 
on. To  his  own  mafter  he/iandcth  or  falkth,  who 
art  thou  that  judgefi  another  P 

The  right  of  liberty,  which  I  have  illuftrated 
at  confiderable  length,  becaufe  it  is  not  generally 
underftood,  includes,  firft,  perfonal  liberty  ;  fe- 
coudly,  liberty  of  aftion  ;  thirdly,  liberty  of  con- 
feience; fourthly,  liberty  of  communication  of 
Sentiment. 

To  all  theSe  modifications  of  liberty  within  the 
limitations  above  ftated,  every  member  of  Society 
G3 


(       102       > 

fa  as  an  equal  right;  nor  can  any  difcriminatiea 
of  rank,  of  fortune,  or  of  abilities,  entitle  any 
one  to  any  privilege  in  thefe  refpects,  which  is  not 
equally  due  to  every  human  being  who  ispoflefled 
of  a  found  mind,  has  reached  the  years  of  matu- 
rity, and  has  not  voluntarily  fubjected  himfelf  to- 
she  controul  of  another- 


C     *oj     ) 


CHAPTER 


That  it  is  the   interest  of  governments  to- 
preferve  inviolate  the  right  of  liberty, 
as  above  explained* 


AT  is  a  falfe  notion  to  fuppofe  that  governments 
are  mod  firmly  eftablilhed  when  the  liberty  of  the 
fubjeft,  or  of  the  citizen,  is  deftroyed*  It  will, 
in  fact,  be  found,  on  mature  confideration,  that 
it  is  as  much  the  intereft  of  governors,  as  of  the 
governed,  that  this  grand  right  be  religioufly  ob- 
served in  all  its  branches*  It  is  true  that  no  go- 
vernment can  fubfift  in  the  midfl:  of  licentioufneis* 
But,  Hcenthufnefs  and  defpotifm  are  only  different 
names  for  the  fame  thing*  Li cent ioufnefs  is  a  con- 
tempt of  law,  and  right,  and  juftice — is  the  do- 
minion of  paflion,  and  caprice,  and  violence-  And, 
what  other  definition  can  be  given  of  defpotifm  ? 
In  the  midfl  of  that  anarchy  which  licentioufnefo 
introduces,  thofe  who  have  acquired  the  greatcfi 
influence  over  the  multitude  lead  them   at  their 


(     104     ) 

pleafure,  and  ufurp  the  moft  defpotic  power  over 
the  reft  of  the  community.  This  power  con- 
tinues as  long  as  the  favour  that  produced  it,  and 
then  gives  place  to  another  dominion,  equally  ca- 
pricious and  cruel.  Society  is  thus  agitated  with 
unceafmg  convulfions,  till  it  link  under  abfolute 
power,  or  a  happy  combination  of  circumftanccs 
eftabiiJii  the  equal  arid  impartial  government  of 
law,  and  of  authority  founded  on  its  balis. 

DefprjUfm  produces  fimilar  effects,  though  in  air 
inverted  courfe.  It  levels  all  to  exalt  oney  or  a 
few;  and,  acknowledging  no  title  but  force,  tram- 
ples under  foot  every  claim  of  right  which  is  op- 
pofed  to  its  dominion.  But,  as  all  power,  when 
•  feparated  from  juitice,  mull  fall  before  fuperior 
power  contending  with  it  ;  and  as  Haves,  whene- 
ver they  have  the  courage  to  refill,  and  the  faga^ 
city  to  combine  againft,  their  mailer,  muft  inevi- 
tably cruih  him  ;  fo,  every  defpot  mares  all  the 
-terror  he  infpires,  and  joins  trembling  with  his 
coirrmands*  Knowing  himfelf  the  enemy  of  man'- 
'kind,  he  can  place  no  confidence  in  their  affecti- 
on, and  make  no  appeal  to  their  juflice.  When 
his  power  begins  to  totter,  the  fear  that  rcllrains 
them  is  removed,  and  the  interefl  that  engaged 
them  in  his  favour  pafTes  over  to  the  quarter  where 
it  can  be  better  promoted.     While  flattery  is  en- 


(     »°5    ) 

deavouring  to  lull  him  to  fecurity,  treachery  is 
machinating  his  deftruction  ;  and  he  is  often  over- 
whelmed before  he  has  time  to  prepare  either  for 
refinance  or  for  efcape*- 

To  this  Gtuation,  difmal  even  in  its  greatefl 
pre-eminence  and  fplendor,  all  abufes  of  power 
infenfibly  lead.  Smaller  violations  of  right  are 
eafily  borne,  becaufe  they  are  not  generally  or  fe- 
verely  felt.  This  fuccefs  tempts  to  greater  op- 
preflion,  while  the  luft,  and  the  advantages  of 
power,  ftimulate  to  extend  its  limits,  and  to  enfure 
its  duration.  Opprelilon,  at  laft,  becomes  necef* 
fary  to  its  own  fupport,  and  the  fear  of  redrefs 
iuggefts  the  accumulation  of  injustice.  Abufes 
grow  intolerable  ;  violent  refiftence  appears  the 
only  means  of  relief;  and  the  moment  which  ad- 
vances oppreiiion  to  its  completion,  becomes   the- 


*  It  is  wonderful  how  nearly  defpodfm,  and  pure  democracy,, 
approach  each  other.  They  are  hoth  the  government  of  th« 
mob,  at  leaft  on  many  occafions.  In  f  ure  democracy  this  is  fuf- 
fkiently  evident.  Defpotifm  can  only  be  maintained  hy  the  army  ; 
and,  when  the  urmy  is  numerous,  it  can  depofl-  the  ibvfereign  at 
plcafure.  The  Roman  emperors  vere  focceffively  elciled,  de- 
throned, ami  butchered,  by  the  Pretorian  guards.  The  Turk" 
ifh  Sultan  is  at  the  mercy  cf  the  JaniflV.ries — See  Gibbon's  H;f- 
tory  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  EBipixe,  vol.  i.  chap* 
viii.  p.  ^09.  Svo  edition-. 


(     'c6     ) 

period  of  ils  overthrow.  For,  when  the  bodies 
of  men  are  neither  effeminated  by  luxury,  nor  en- 
feebled by  climate,  nor  their  minds  bru tilled  by 
ignorance,  they  cannot  fail,  fooner  or  later,  to 
make  off  the  yoke  of  tyranny,  and  to  break  her 
fceptre  in  pieces.  As  in  fuch  circumflances,  hew  - 
ever,  their  lethargic  pafllvenefs  is  difpelled  by  ex- 
traordinary ftimulants,  and  the  furious  paffions 
of  refentnient  and  revenge  are  violently  roufed, 
the  raoft  atrocious  acts  of  cruelty  are  exercifeJ 
towards  their  bppreffprs,  or  thefe  whom  they 
conceive  to  have  been  joined  with  them  in  the  odi- 
ous combination  againft  their  (pedes  ;  and  the 
vindication  of  violated  right  is  thus  often  accom- 
panied with  the  mp"ft  flagrant  injustice.  In  this 
manner  human  fociety,  which  mould  be  the  Safe- 
guard of  human  happinefs,  fo  frequently  exhibits 
alternate  fcenes  of  rigorous  defpotifm,  and  of 
furious  dinarchy  ;  of  injuftice  in  the  maintenance 
of  ulurped  power,  and  of  violence  in  the  fubver- 
fion  of  it  ;  of  grofs  abufes  in  the  adminiltration 
of  governments,  and  of  lamentable  calamities  in 
the  reformation  of  them.  The  only  flable  go- 
vernment is  that  jn  hich  is  founded  on  equal  liber- 
ty, limited  by  law,  admiuiitercd  with  moderation, 
fupported  by  the  combined  interefts  of  the  whole 
political  body,  and  displayed  in  the  glorious  effects 
cf  internal  order  and  external  fecurity — of  im- 
proving induftry,  civilization,  and  virtue- 


(      io7     ) 


CHAPTER       VI. 
Of  rights  -peculiar  to   certain  stations  and 

ABILITIES. 


'ESIDES  thofe  rights,  equally  belonging  to 
all,  which  have  been  above  illuftrated,  there  are 
others,  which,  although  they  are  founded  on  the 
diftinttions  of  rank  and  fortune,  or  on  the  gene- 
ral fubordination  which  civil  lbciety  requires,  are 
neverthelefs  deducible  from  that  notion  of  equali- 
ty eftabliihed  in  the  firft  part  of  this  Efiay. 

I.  Thofe  who  are  placed  in  the  higher  (htions, 
and  inverted  with  offices  of  government  and  com- 
mand, as  they  owe  the  difcharge  of  thefe  impor- 
tant functions  to  the  public,  are  entitled,  from 
this  very  conikleration,  to  the  obedience  of  thofe 
who  are  fub  jetted  to  their  authority..  As  mem- 
bers of  the  focial  body  they  are  bound  to  promote 
its  intereit  by  the  moit  effectual  means  in  their 
power.     The  peculiar  direction  of  this  utility  is 


'(     i°8     ) 

determined  by  their  offices  themfelves.  This 
line  cannot  be  purfued  without  the  legal  obedi» 
ence  andfubmlfiion  of  the  reft  of  the  community. 
Hence  that  equality  of  obligation  which  binds  the 
former  to  the  juft  and  zealous  difcharge  of  their 
functions,  binds  alfo  the  latter  to  a  ready  and  cheer- 
ful fubje&ion  to  their  authority. 

II.  When  the  necelTary  balance  of  the  politi- 
cal body,  or  that  encouragement  of  merit  which 
tends  fo  powerfully  to  promote  its  higheft  intereft, 
have  raifed  a  certain  clafs  of  men  to  certain  ho- 
nours and  privileges;  thefe  are,  by  that  equality 
itfelf  which  fubfifts  among  all  in  their  common  re- 
lation to  the  public  good,  entitled  to  the  advan- 
tages and  refpecu  which  are  annexed  to  their  fta*. 
tion,  which  the  public  welware  requires  mould 
be  maintained  in  becoming  fplendour  and  dignity* 

When,  by  political  conftitutioiis,  peculiar  marks 
of  diftincuoii  are  aihgned  to  eminent  talents  and 
virtues,  thcfe  who  difplay  them  have  a  juft  claim 
tm  the  public  to  the  diftinclion  which  is  their  re- 
ward, and  on  every  member  of  the  community  for 
the  regard  which  that  diftinclion  requires.  Views 
of  public  intereft fugged  fuch  diftindions  as  incen- 
tives to  merit,  in  order  to  extract  from  all  the" 
members  of  the  focial  body  the  greateft   poilible 


(     ™9     ) 

fu'm  of  exertion,  and  to  diffufe  its  influence  over 
the  whole.  It  is  juft,  therefore,  that  thofe  who 
contribute  in  the  mod  diftinguifhed  degree  to  the 
common  welfare  fhould  enjoy  a  proportionable 
fhare  of  honour  and  advantage,  adapted  to  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  their  utility  has  been 
difplayed.  To  deprive  them  of  this  would  be  to 
deftroy  their  relation  to  the  community,  and  that 
equality  which  confifts  in  the  common  obligation 
of  all  to  contribute  to  its  benefit,  and  to  receive  a 
proportionate  return* 

III.  When  riches,  acquired  by  honeft  induftry, 
t)r  enjoyed  in  virtue  of  thofe  laws  which  perpetu- 
ate property,  whatever  be  its  value  and  extend 
enable  their  pofTeflbrs  to  relieve  want,  to  footh 
affliction ,  to  diffufe  around  them  a  fpirit  of  improve* 
ment,  to  encourage  induflry,  and  to  make  their 
fuperfluity  circulate  through  the  general  mafs  of 
the  community,  they  confer  on  the  opulent  a  juft. 
title  to  confideration  and  influence,  in  proportion 
to  the  fuperior  benefits  they  beftow  on  all  who 
are  placed  within  the  fphere  of  their  action.  It 
would  be  as  unjuft  to  deny  them  this  confiderati. 
on,  as  it  would  be  to  with-hold  from  a  day-la- 
borer his  hire,  or  from  a  good  man  the  efteem 
which  is  his  due. 


K 


(       MO       ) 

IV.   The  fame  confiderations  give  to  the  inferi- 
or ranks  of  fociety,  and  to  the  community  in  gene- 
ral, an  equal  right  to  demand  that  all  delegated 
power  and  authority,  as  all  civil  power  undoubt- 
edly is,  be  employed  folely  for  the  ends  for  which 
it  was  conferred,  and  that  all  honorary  diflinctions 
be  neither  beflowed  on  the  undeferving,  nor  per- 
verted   to   the   purpofes  of  pride,  of  infolence, 
and  of  opprefhon.     The  community. at  large  has 
a  right  to  demand  that  the   legiflative  power  be 
conflantly  directed  by  views   of  general  utility, 
and  not  by  partial  fyftems  which  injure  and  diftrefs 
the  whole  by  throwing  all  advantages  on  one  fide 
of  the  political  body  ;  that  the  executive  power 
never  exceed  its  legal  bounds,  and,  by  an  impar- 
tial administration  of  juftice,  maintain  all  in  the 
equal  enjoyment-of  their  rights;  that  rank  be 
fupported  with. dignity,  and  tempered  with  the 
affability  and  condefcenfion  becoming  every  citi- 
zen; that  wealth  be  not  abufed  to  introduce  and 
foment  profligacy  of  manners,  or  to  abet  injuftice  ; 
and  that  talents  be  not  perverted  to  difleminate 
opinions  and  principles  fubverfiveof  virtue,  and 
pernicious  to  fociety, 

V.  All  men, have  an  equal,  though  imperfect, 
right  to  thofe  offices  of  humanity  which,  while 
they  cofl  the  performers  of  them  little  trouble, 


are  the  fweeteners  of  focial  intercourfe  ;  and  to 
the  compaffion  and  relief,  of  others,  proportion- 
ed to  their  condition  and  circumftances,  when 
they  are  overpowered  by  diftrefs  and  calamity. 
This  right,  it  is  true,  cannot  be  fo  defined  as  to 
admit  of  any  individual's  claiming  a  determined 
portion  of  the  good  offices  of  any  of  his  fellow 
men;  nay,  the  fulfilment  of  its  obligations  muft 
from  its  very  nature,  be  left  to  every  one's  judg- 
ment and  feelings.  But,  as  men  aflbciate  for 
their  mutual  benefit  and  comfort,  as  humanity  is 
interwoven  with  the  human  conftitution,  and  as 
compaflion  with  diftrefs  is  one  of  the  ftrongeft 
feelings  of  our  nature,  it  is  undoubted  that,  to 
every  fituation  which  is  calculated  to  call  thefe 
feelings  into  action,  a  certain  right  is  annexed  to 
expect  and  require  them,  and  a  general  obligati- 
on lies  on  all  to  advance  the  bappinefs  of  their 
fellow  men  by  every  mean  in  their  power.  As 
the  ordinary  offices  of  civility  muft  vary  accordino- 
to  the  different  conditions  and  ranks  of  men ;  fa 
the  compaflion  which  is  due  to  their  diftrefs,  and 
the  relief  which  it  prompts  to  afford,  muft  be 
greatly  affected  by  the  fame  confiderations.  For, 
as  a  lofs  which  would  ruin  a  man  in  narrow  cir- 
cumftances,  would  not  at  all  affect  a  perfon  of 
affluent  fortune;  fo,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
are  fituations  which  would  appear  to  one  in  ob- 
K2 


(     na     I 

fcure  ftation  highly  eligible,  which  would  over- 
whelm thofe  of  a  more  elevated  condition  with  in- 
expreffible  dejection  and  anguiih.  What  would 
feem  to  one  perfon  a  Angular  benefit,  would,  to 
another  in  different  circumftances,  either  be  no 
benefit  at  all,  or  interpreted  into  a  cruel  affront- 
All  then  have  an  equal  right  to  offices  of  humani- 
ty and  kindnefs ;  but  the  degree  and  manner  of 
thefe  offices  muft  be  determined  by  the  circumftan- 
ces  and  rank  of  the  perfons  towards  whom  they 
are  exercifed.  This  proportion  is  required  by 
equality  itfelf. 


(     »3     ) 


C  HA  P  T  E  R       VII. 

GENERAL    INFERENCES   from    the    WHOLE    of    this 
EOOK. 


A  Have  now  endeavored  to  enumerate,  and 
eftablifh,  as  concifely  as  poffible,  the  different 
rights  that  flow  from  the  natural  equality  of  men, 
confidered  in  its  proper  light.  Some  of  thefe  are 
fo  effentially  neceflary  to  human  happinefs,  that 
they  cannot  be  violated  without  overturning  the 
iirfl  principles  of  fociety.  They  are  the  funda- 
mental articles  of  the  focial  compact,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  which  mankind,  if  not  explicitly,  yet 
tacitly,  and  by  the  inftitution  of  civil  fociety  itfelf, 
have  ftipulated  to  relinquifh  fome  portion  of  their 
natural  liberty,  and  to  commit,  to  a  certain  num- 
ber of  its  members,  the  concentrated  power  of  the 
community  for  the  benefit  of  all.  Civil  fociety 
annihilates  not  the  natural  rights  of  me»y  but  fen- 
ces, fecures,  and  improves  them.  By  circumf  brib- 
ing them  by  the  limits  which  the  political  union 
K3 


(     H4     ) 

requires,  it  condenfes,  as  it  were,  their  eflencer 
and  gives  it  greater  flrength  and  fblidity. 

Others  of  thefe  rights  flow,  indeed,  from  the 
fame  principles ;  but,  as  they  cannot  be  fo  pre- 
cifely  afcertained  as  to  eftabliih  an  exact  and  defi- 
nite claim  in  every  particular  cafe,  they  may  ad- 
mit of  a  lefs  rigorous  obfervance,  without  wound- 
ing the  vitals  of  human  afTociation.  .  If  ihofe  of 
the  former  clafs  conftitute  the  foundations  of  the 
focial  fabric,  thofe  of  the  latter  indicate  the  means 
of  its  confolidation  and  higheft  improvement* 
When  all  thefe  rights  are  maintained,  according 
to  their  refpective  importance,  as  far  as  the  hu- 
man condition  will  admit,  fociety  is  flouriihing 
and  happy,  under  whatever  form  of  political  ad- 
ministration it  may  be  placed.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  certain  forms  of  government,  which,  as  their 
conftitution  itfelf  threatens  even  the  molt  impor- 
tant of  them  with  destruction,  are,  therefore,  ef- 
fentiallybad.  But,  there  are  others  which,  main- 
taining the  grand  prerogatives  of  human  nature, 
have  a  direct  tendency  to  advance  focial  happinefs, 
though  in  different  degrees.  Under  fuch  govern- 
ments mankind  may  always  confider  it  as  a  fortu- 
nate circumftance   to  be  placed.     That  govern- 


f    »'5    ) 

ment  is  thebeftin  which  all  the  inherent  rights  of 
human  nature  are  inviolably  fecured,  legal  autho- 
rity is  maintained,  and  reftricted  to  its  objects,  the 
power  of  the  ftate  is  employed  to  promote  the 
general  happinefs ;  and  inequality  itfelf  tends  to 
preferve  equality  of  law,  and  parity  of  obligatien, 
among  all  the  members  of  the  community. 


A  N 


E    S    S    A    Y,    &c. 


BOOK     III. 


(     "9    ) 

<>"  »    ' ■  ■  *    '  i   '  i   '■-    i        j      _a 

AN 

ESSAY,      &c. 

BOOK        III. 

What  are   the  DUTIES  refultlng  from  the 
EQUALITY  vf  MANKIND .? 


CHAPTER       I. 

PRELIMINARY     OBSERVATIONS. 

X  HE  divillon  of  my  fubje&,  on  which  I  now 
enter,  opens  a  field  comprehending  every  lbcial 
and  civil  duty,  becaufe  every  duty  of  this  clafs  fup- 
pofes  reciprocal  obligations  founded  on  the  terms 
of  equality,  on  which  men  aflbciate*  Nay,  as  in 
order  tod  ifcharge  the  duties  we  owe  to  our  fellow 
men,  and  fellow  citizens>  it  is  necefTary  to  reftrain 
our  felfifh  pafhons  within juft  bounds;  and,  asjhe 
Divine  authority  fan&ions  every  human  obligati- 
on, and  religion  is  the  firmed  bond  of  fociety,  the 


(       &$      J 

-duties  of  piety,  as  well  as  thofe  of  felf-command 
and  moderation,  might  be  inculcated  on  the  fame 
principles.  Hence,  a  complete  treatife  of  practical 
morality  might  be  produced.  But,  as  this  EfTay 
has  already  fwelled  beyond  the  bounds  which  I 
at  firft  propofed  to  it,  I  mail  confine  myfelf  to  the 
-confideration  of  thefe  duties  which  directly  flow 
from  the  principles  of  equality  already  eftablifhed, 
and  from  the  rights  which  they  confirm.  The 
duties  now  to  be  illuflrated  will,  therefore,  cor- 
refpond.to  the  two  grand  divifions  of  rights  ex- 
plained in  the  preceding  Book*. 

■•  Ch.  II.  III.  IV.  VIte 


(     «w     ) 


CHAPTER       II. 


^//MEN  equally  bound  to  respect  the  PRIMITIVE 

RIGHTS  of  HUMAN  NATURE. 


A: 


S  the  inherent  rights  of  human  nature  are  the 
fundamental  articles  of  the  fecial  compact,  for  the 
maintenance  and  prefervation  of  which  civil  fo- 
ciety  is  conftituted,  every  violation  of  thefe  is 
not  only  an  atrocious  injury  to  the  individual 
who  fuflfers  it,  but  is  a  direct  attack  on  fociety  it* 
felf.  No  pre-eminence  or  prerogative  whatever 
can  give  a  title  to  deprive  an  innocent  member  of 
the  community  of  thofe  rights,  without  which  his 
exiftence  is  either  precarious  or  miferable  ;  and 
every  attempt  to  infringe  them  is,  on  the  part  of 
the  aggrelTor,  a  renunciation  of  his  focial  advan- 
tages, becaufe  thefe  advantages  are  infeparably 
conne&ed  with  the  obfervance  of  the  rights  now 
under  confideration.  It  is  to  fubftitute  force 
in  the  place  of  right y  and,  of  confequence,  to 
acknowledge  that  fuperior  power  is  entitled  to 
L 


(      1*2      } 

make  him  Tubmit  in  his  turn.  This  principle, 
carried  in  every  inftance  as  far  as  it  will  go,  tears 
afunder  every  fbcial  and  civil  tie,  tramples  under 
foot  every  dictate  of  juftice,  and  introduces  a  urate 
of  unceafing  hofiility  and  violence. 

Indeed,  fo  effential  are  fom«  of  thofe  rights  to 
the  very  exiflence  of  fociety,  that  they  are  fenc- 
ed and  fecured  by  the  ftrongefl  civil  fanctions. 
Life  and  property  cannot  be  directly  actacked 
-without  expofing  the  aggrefTor  to  the  fevereft  pe- 
nalties. But  in  what  a  variety  of  indirect  ways 
may  injuries  of  this  nature  be  offered,  without 
any  rifk  of  human  punimment  ?  Life  is  deftroyed 
not  only  by  the  dagger,  or  by  the  bowl,  but  by 
with-holding  the  means  of  its  fupport.  Life  is 
not  fo  defirable  on  its  own  account,  as  on  account 
of  the  enjoyments  which  it  furnifhes.  Property 
is  withdrawn  from  its  lawful  pofTeilor,  not  only  by 
robbery,  or  by  theft,  but  alfb  by  every  fpeciesof 
unfair  commerce.  Every  deceitful  practice,  there- 
fore, whereby  advantage  is  taken,  under  what- 
ever colour,  of  the  ignorance  or  of  the  neceffity 
of  men,  to  deprive  them  of  their  property  with- 
out an  equivalent,  is  a  violation  of  the  right  of 
property,  and  every  oppreffive  act  which  cuts  off 
or  diminifhes  the  means  of  a  comfortable  fubfift- 
ence,  is  an  attack  upon  life  itfelf.    Toreduce  men 


(    123     ) 

to  the  difmal  neceflity  of  dragging  out  exigence 
in  mifery  and  contempt,  to  make  them  curie  the 
day  of  their  birth,  and  figh  for  that  of  their  dif- 
iblution,  to  render  the  tendered  of  nature's  ties 
an  aggravation  of  diftrefs ;  what  is  this  but  to 
{pare  life  in  order  to  perpetuate  torment  ?  And 
to  this  difmal  condition  how  great  a  portion  of 
the  human  race  is  reduced — a  condition  more  ab« 
jecftthan  that  of  the  brute  creation,  which  nature 
has  provided  with  the  neceffary  fupply  of  their 
wants,  and  given  them  defires  for  nothing  more  ! 
Shall  any  rights  whatever,  derived  wholly  from 
political  inflitutions,  founded,  for  the  moflparr, 
in  barbarous  ignorance  and  tyrannic  oppreflion, 
be  oppofed  to  thofe  clear  and  permanent  rights 
which  the  Creator  has  conferred  on  all  men 
equally,  by  the  gift  of  life  itfelf,  and  by  the  na- 
tural faculties  of  providing  for  its  fupply  !  Shall 
he  who  cultivates  the  foil  be  deprived  of  an  ade- 
quate fhare  of  the  fruits  which  his  induflry  pro- 
duces, and  pine  in  want,  while  the  labour  of  his 
hands  feeds  luxurious  idlenefs  ?  Shall  the  right  of 
property  be  eftablifhed  only  for  thofe  who  contri- 
bute nothing  to  the  general  flock,  but  confume 
and  wafle  what  the  induflry  of  others  has  provid- 
ed, and  mall  that  property  which  nature  has  be- 
llowed on  her  children,  in  the  faculties  of  their 


La 


(       124      ) 

minds  and  of  their  bodies,  be  confidered  as  amarH 
of  degradation,  and  a  badge  of  flavery  ? 

How  contrary  are  fuch  fentiments,  and  the 
conduct  they  produce,  to  that  juft  notion  of  equa- 
lity above  eftablifhed,  which  reprefents  every  hu- 
man being  as  a  conftituent  member  of  the  focial 
body,  and  in  his  peculiar  ftation,  equally  necefla- 
ry,  with  every  other,  to  the  common  welfare; 
which  exhibits  man  toman  as  children  of  one  com- 
mon parent,  as  brethren  connected  no  lefs  by  one 
common  intereft,  than  by  one  common  origin,  and 
(Incriminated,  by  different  diftinctions  of  occupa- 
tion and  place,  merely  that  the  general  good  may 
be  more  effectually  advanced*  For,  although  fuch 
views  of  focietymay,  by  fome  whofe  policy  is  but 
half  wifdom,  be  claifed  among  the  theories  oP 
inoralifts,  or  the  vilions  of  divines,  they  are  the 
only  representations  that  can  (land  the  teft  of  rea- 
fon,  or  bear  the  eye  of  inquiry. 

Equally  incumbent,  on  all  men,  is  the  duty  to 
refpect  the  right  which  every  innocent  individual, 
iias  to  character  and  liberty.  But,  how  little  is 
this  duty  regarded?  Civil  laws  cannot  do  fo  much 
for  the  fecurity  of  the  rights,  to  which  it  relates, 
as  for  thofe  of  life  and  property  ;  becaufe  it  is  not 
fo  eafy  to  deline,  in  every  cafe,  their  exact  extent, 


f    !#    J 

and  muchmoreris,  on  that  account,  left  to  thedif- 
cretion  and  virtue  of  individuals.  That  degree 
of  character  which  is  aflaulted  by  open  and  direct 
calumny,  may,  indeed,  be  always  exactly  afcer- 
tained,  and  every  infraction  of  it  become  the 
fubject  of  legal  animadverfion.  This  is  alfo  the 
cafe  with  regard  to  perfonal  liberty.  But,  in  how 
many  inftances  may  a  character  be  ruined,  with- 
out  its  being  in  the  power  of  the  injured  perfon 
to  find  any  legal  redrefs ;  and  how  much  may  one's 
juft  liberty  be  circumfcribed  and  infringed  without 
any  ground  of  legal  complaint?  The  daily  con- 
duct of  mankind  towards  one  another,  in  thefe 
refpects,  is  the  ftrongefl  evidence  both  of  thene- 
ceflity  of  a  civil  government,  and  of  its  infuffici- 
ency  for  the  fecurity  of  human  happinefs.  It 
manifefts  the  malevolent  propenfities  by  which 
mankind  are  often  actuated,  and,  of  confequence, 
the  neceflity  of  coercive  power;  and,  fince  thefe 
evil  propenfities  burft  out  on  fo  many  quarters, 
notwithstanding  the  authority  of  laws,  this  evin- 
ces the  great  utility  of  philofophical  and  religious 
inftruction,  which  applies  to  the  underftanding 
and  the  heart,  and,  by  purifying  the  fource  of 
action,  renders  conduct  more  conformable  to  hu« 
man  nature,  and  more  conducive  to  human  felU 
eitvv. 


£#  3- 


(     126     ) 

Do  unto  others  as  you  wijh  them  to  do  unto  you? 
is  a  maxim  thatanfwers  every  cafe  in  which  we  can 
have  any  intercourfe  with  our  fellow  men.  It  J3 
founded  on  the  equality  of  human  nature,  amidft- 
all  the  diverfities  of  condition  and  circumftances. 
It  takes,  as  the  rule  of  conduct,  the  feelings  of 
every  individual,  fuppodng  his  condition  were 
exchanged  with  that  of  the  perfon  towards  whom 
he  acts.  It  could  neverr  therefore,  ,be  a  juft 
itandard,  if  the  fame  duties  were  not  equally  in- 
cumbent  on  all  in  the  fame  circumstances.  Now, 
with,  refpecl  to  reputation  and  liberty,  which  eve- 
ry human  being  fo  warmly  cherifhes,  andfoea^ 
gerly  purfues,  this  rule  ought  to  have  peculiar 
efficacy.  Yet,  in  thefe  refpects,  it  is  m oft  mame- 
f ully  and  frequently  violated.  It  is  aftoniming  to 
©bferve  the  general  averfion  to  reproach  and  cen- 
fure,  and  the  general  propenfity  to  reproach  and 
eenfure  others;  the  high  opinion  which  moft  peo- 
ple entertain  of  themfelves,  and  wifti  the  world 
to  entertain  of  them,  and  their  inclination  to 
think  ill  of  others,  and  to  undervalue  and  dimi- 
nifh  their  good  qualities.  It  is  natural  to  fuppofe, 
that,  as  the  experience  of  diftrefs  renders  men 
prone  to  companion*,  fo  the  love  of  character, 
and   averfion  from   difgrace,  which  operate  fo 

*  Haud  ignara  mail  mifcrii  fuccurrcre  difccv 


(    w    ) 

powerfully  in  every  human  breaft,  would  render 
men  delicate  in  inflicting,  on  others,  thofe  pains 
which  arefo  grievous  to  themfelves,  and  in  depri- 
ving them  of  thofe  f satisfactions  which  they  ac- 
count fo  delicious.  But  thefe  fenfations  act,  un- 
der the  impulfe  of  felfifhnefs  in  a  contrary  man- 
ner.. Men  think  that  the  reputation  of  others 
ftands  in  the  way  of  their  own,  and  that  their  ex- 
cellence cannot  be  exhibited  unleis  thofe  inter- 
pofmg  eminences  be  thrown  down,  and  the  pub- 
lic eye  wholly  fixed  on  themfelves*  While  men 
are  thus  employed  in  levelling  each  other,  no  real 
pre-eminence  remains  to  any,  and  nothing  is- 
difplayed,  to  every  judicious  eye,  but  one  wide 
extent  of  malignity  and  corruption.  Every  one 
wiihes  his  opinion  of  his  neighbour  tobe  believed  j 
and  his  wifh  is  granted.  But  the  fulfilment  of 
this  wifh  equally  wounds  the  characters  of  all. 
The  blemifhes  he  difcovers  in  another,  or  imputes 
to  him,  are  acknowledged  ;  thofe  which  another 
lays  to  his  charge  meet  with  the  fame  credit. 
Thus  every  one  by  endeavoring  to  exalt  himfelf 
at  another's  expence,  only  points  out  the  means 
of  his  own  depreflion,  and,  by  fetting  the  exam- 
ple, provokes  the  reft  of  mankind  to  ufe  them. 
Such  however,  is  the  fafcination  of  felf-love, 
that  the  generality  of  men  fuppofe  themfelves  ve- 
ry little  obnoxious  to  cenfure;  and,    while  they 


(     128     ) 

are  indulging  the  moft  vicious  paflions  of  the  hu- 
man heart,  envy  or  revenge,   they  flatter  them- 
felves  with  the  vain  notion  that  their  turpitude  is 
unobferved.     As  ofteH  as  I  reflect  on  the  preva- 
lence of  detraction,  of  obloquy,   and  of  ilander,  I 
find  it  difficult  to  determine  whether  it  proceeds 
more  from  weakuefs  or  from  malignity  ;  whether 
it  is  more  an  object  of  contempt  or  of  deteflation* 
What  can  be  more  malignant  than  to  delight  in 
the  deftruction  of  one    of  the  deareft  of,  human 
enjoyments?    What  more  foolifh  and  ridiculous 
than  for  a  perfon  to  alTault  others,  and  to  fuppofe- 
that  the  attack  will  not  be  returned  ? 

The  fame  abfurdity  and  injuftice  is  confpicuous 
in  the  mutual  conduct  of  men  with  regard  to  liber- 
ty. How  few  are  ready  on  every  occaflon  to* 
grant  to  others  the  fame  freedom  which  they  take 
to  themlelves !  Such  is  the  fpirit  of  domination 
univerfally  diffufed,  that  what  Pope  limits  only  to 
one  fex.,  is  equally  applicable  to  both — the  love  of 
fleafure,  and  the  love  of  power.  Indeed,  the  one 
neceffarily  draws  after  it  the  other.  The  love  of 
pleafure  produces  the  defire  of  the  means  of  ob- 
taining it,  and  of  extending  influence  and  power 
as  far  as  poflible.  For  why  are  men  tyrants,  but 
becaufe  they  wifh  freely  to  indulge  their  inclina- 
tions, unreftrained  by  juilice,.  unlimited  by  mode- 


f  129  ) 

ration  ?  While   felf-love,  therefore,  is   the  pre- 
dominant principle  of  the  human  heart,  tyranny- 
will  not  be  confined  to  thrones  and  dominions,  to 
principalities  and  powers,    but  fpread  through  e- 
very  Iphere  and  condition  of  life.     It   is   not  fo 
much  the  inclination  as  the  power  that  is  want- 
ing ;  and  the  ■  emper,  which  is  overbearing  and 
unjuft  in  private  life,  would  be  a  Nero  if  ieated 
on  a  throne.     Let   us  only  confider  the  fond  at- 
tachment which  molt  men  have  to  their  own  opi- 
nions and  mode  of  life,  their  eager  defire  to  im- 
pofe  them  on  others,  their  impatience  of  contra- 
diction, their  propenfity  to   fquare  the  actions  of 
other  men  by  their  own  rule,  their  luft  of  homage 
and    precedence,  their   eagernefs  to   rife  above 
others,  and  to  indulge  their  ambition  in  every  lit- 
tle manner  which  their  iphere  prefents  to  them, 
their  refentment  of  affronts  and   injuries,  appa- 
rent as  well  as  real,   their  felf-conceit  and  averfi- 
on  from  amendment — we  behold  the  feeds  of  ty- 
ranny lurking  in  almcft every  human  breaft;   and. 
fhall  ceafe  to  wonder  that,  when  great  power  i9 
poflTelTed,  it  mould  be  fo  frequently  abufed.  How 
feldom  is  the  freedom  of  fpeech  and  action  enjoy- 
ed even  in  the  freeft  dates  of  civil  fociety  !  Let  any 
one  recollect  what  pafles  before  his   eyes  every 
day;  let  him  confider how-often  he  is  obliged  to 
regulate  his  words,  not  fo  much   by  the  internal 


f     J3°     I 

fentiments  of  his  own  heart,  as  by  the  opinions 
and  prejudices  of  thofe  with  whom  he  affociates> 
and  his  aclions,  not  fo  much  by  the  immutable 
rules  of  duty,  as  by  the  fictitious  fian,dards  of  the 
world,  and  he  will  corifefs  that  none  can  enjoy 
the  true  freedom  of  a  man,  but  he  who  has  the 
fortitude  to  facrifice  to  this  exalted  privilege,  his 
raoft  valuable  temporal  interefts,  and  his  chief 
focial  pleafures.  Prejudices  born  of  ignorance*, 
or  of  pride,  are  nouriihedby  education,  ftrength- 
ened  by  inter  eft,  or  fupported  by  that  felf-love 
which  is  humbled  by  the  expofition  of  them»- 
Cuftom  and  f  ami  on  have  eftablifhed  arbitrary 
rules  and  forms,  which,  however  contrary  to  rea- 
fon,  it  is  coniidered  as  unlawful,  at  leaft,  as  high- 
ly ridiculous,  to  infringe.  The  man  who  pre- 
iumes  to  tliink,  to  fpeak,  or  to  act,  differently 
from  the  generality,  even  in  matters  of  lingular 
importance  to  the  common. good,  is  looked  upon. 
as  an  unfocial  favage  being,  who,  feparatinghim- 
felf  from  his  fpecies,  is  entitled  to  no  fliare  of  their 
regard  and  affeclion.  It  is  well,  if  he  is  not  ez^- 
pofed  to  the  fevereft  elFecls  of  refentment  and 
hatred. 

Wealth  and  external  dignity,a!though  they  can- 
not of  themfelves  introduce  one  ray  of  light  into 
the  underftanding,   or  implant  one  virtue  in  the 


t     i3«    ) 

heart,  afTume  the  privilege  of  dictating  in  mit- 
ters  of  tafte,  of  politics,  of  fcience,  of  morality, 
and  of  religion,  and  of  bearing  down  all  who  fub- 
fcribe  not  to  their  arbitrary  decrees.  The  ref- 
pect  due  to  rank,  and  the  influence  which  for- 
tune juftly  claims,  every  man  of  fenle  and  of  in- 
tegrity will  readily  acknowledge  and  beftow. 
But  that  a  man's  judgment  mould  be  meafured  by 
Lis  title,  or  his  merit,  weighed  by  his  gold ;  that 
fortune  and  rank  mould  not  only  pofTefs  their 
rightful  precedence,  but  alfo  ufurp  the  honour 
which  is  equally  due  to  genius  and  learning,  to 
wifdom  and  virtue ;  that  a  fenfible  and  honeft 
man  mould  not  dare  to  exprefs  his  fentiments,  be- 
canfe  they  are  repugnant  to  thofe  of  another  de- 
corated with  the  badges  of  diftin&ion,  or  poffefs- 
ed  of  a  large  eftate  ;  is  fnch  a  perverfion  of  na- 
ture, fuch  an  infraction  of  liberty,  as  mankind 
could  never  be  brought  to  endure  but  by  thofe 
habits  of  fervility  which  luxurious  effeminacy  has 
introduced.  It  will  be  anfwered,  that  this  free- 
dom, every  man  who  choofes  to  ufe  it,  may  en- 
joy. But  at  what  expence  ?  at  the  expence  of  in- 
curring the  keeneft  difpleafure  of  the  exalted 
perfon  whom  he  difobliges,  and  of  feeling  his 
power  employed  to  ruin  him  and  his  nearefl  con- 
nections. 


I  13s  ) 

But,  why  complain  of  the  exorbitant  and  ty- 
rannical pretentions  of  rank  and  fortune,  when 
genius,  which  has  already  fecured  fame,  frequent, 
ly  exhibits  the  fame  dogmatical  and  oppreftive  fpi- 
rit?  How  often  have  thofe,  whole  literary  cha- 
racter has  already  attracted  the  greateft  confide- 
ration  and  refpect,  ufurped  a  dictatorial  power 
both  in  converfation  and  writing:,  contradicted 
without  argument,  keenly  refented  the  fmalleft 
difference  of  opinion,  even  when  their  fentiments 
were  manifestly  abfurd,  fhared  out  their  appro- 
bation by  the  meafure  of  flattery  they  received, 
and  inflicted  cenfure,  not  according  to  perfonal 
or  literary  merit,  but  according  to  the  prejudice 
or  difguft  by  which  they  were  influenced.  In 
reading  the  lives  of  fome  diftinguiihed  geniufes, 
I  have  found  my  indignation  as  much  fired  by 
their  pride  and  infolence,  and  by  the  tame  fub- 
miflion  with  which  they  were  borne,  as  by  the  op- 
prefiion  of  civil  defpots,  and  the  fervility  of  the 
reft  of  mankind.  In  fact,  genius  and  reputati- 
on give  as  little  title  to  domineer  as  fortune  and 
rank.  For,  whatever  mental  fuperiority  a  man 
may  difplay,  he  is  inferior  to  others  in  many  qua- 
lities, equally  neceffary  to  the  common  good  as 
the  talents  he  poiTefles.  Brilliant  powers  are  fre- 
quently counter-balanced  by  contemptible  weak- 
nefles,  and  great  virtues  by  ihameful  vices.     Ill 


(     '33     ) 

prooi  of  this  aiTertion>  I  might  inftance  the  lives 
of  ibme  of  the  greateft  literary  characters. 

As  individuals  are  actuated  by  a  tyrannical  fpi- 
rit,  fo  nations  claim  to  themfelves  the  preroga- 
tive of  reducing  to  flavery  others  inhabiting  a 
different  climate,  or  diftinguifhed  by  a  different 
^colour  of  countenance.  Ariftotle,  in  that  very 
book  where  he  eftablifhes  the  grand  principles  of 
a  free  government*,  is  not  afhamed  to  affert, 
that  the  Greeks  were  deftined,  by  nature,  to 
rule  the  other  nations  of  the  earth ;  and  founds 
this  right  on  their  fuperior  genius  and  civilization. 
Had  that  philofopher  forefeen  the  prefent  ftate 
of  his  own  country,  and  that  Of  thofe  nations 
whom  he  confidered  as  appointed  to  continue  bar- 
barians to  the  end  of  time,  he  would  have  ac- 
knowledged the  futility  of  his  argument.  But 
the  nations  of  Europe,  who  have  exchanged  bar- 
barifm  for  refinement,  have  adopted  the  fame 
principle,  and  fuppofe  that  fuperiority  of  art  and 
policy  carries  along  with  it  the  right  of  opprefs- 
ing  thole  whofe  ftate  is  ftill  rude  and  uncultiva- 
ted. The  principles  eftabliihed  in  this  Effay  fuffi- 
ciently  evince  that  no  pre-eminence  of  fagacity, 
wifdom,  ingenuity,  or  ftrength  can  entitle  any 
"human  being,  or  any  fociety  of  men,  to  deprive 

•  Politic.  lib,  I  mo. 

M 


<     134     ) 

others  of  the  inherent  and  unalienable  rights    of 
human  nature. 

But,  fince  principles  directly  contrary  to  thefe 
influence  the  generality  of  mankind,  the  prelent 
ftate  of  fociety  is  perfectly  conformable.  As  few 
men  have  the  courage  to  facrifice  their  intereft, 
their  pleafure,  or  their  fame,  to  their  regard  for 
truth  and  juftice,  the  great  concern  is,  to  fpeak 
and  act,  not  as  reafon  and  virtue  dictate,  but  as 
interefted  views,  in  conforming  to  the  opinions, 
humours,  and  manners  of  others,  may  require. 
.For,  how  is  the  favour  of  the  greater  part  of  men 
to  be  caught,  but  by  adulation  and  fervile  ref- 
pect .?  and  what  fo  efficacious  for  incurring  their 
difpkafure,  as  that  manly  and  generous  conduct 
and  converiation,  which  indicate  lefs  folicitudeto 
fecure  favour  than  to  enjoy  fe If- efteem,  a  great- 
er love  of  mankind  than  refpect  for  individuals  ? 
Hence,  moft  men  have  an  opinion  for  every  com- 
pany they  frequent,  and  change  their  fentiments 
oftener  than  their  drefs.  The  art  of  pleafmg, 
reduced  into  fyftem,  and  practifed  by  every  one 
who  aflumes  the  character  of  politenefs,  has  given 
the  fame  fhape  and  coloring  to  the  manners  of  all ; 
and  thofe  prominent  features,  which  characterife 
and  diftinguifh,  are  rubbed  off  by  the  file  of  civi- 
lity and  faihion.     Politenefs  is  making  conftant 


(     *35    J 

demands — propriety  impoling  new  laws — men 
are  always  the  (laves  of  cuftom,  and  feldom  fol- 
low the  bent  of  their  own  genius  and  temper. 
Society  is  a  fpecies  of  ftage,  on  which  the  actors 
appear  in  their  turns,  and  play  their  parts.  The 
real  character  remains  behind  the  fcenes.  The 
great  conteft  is,  who  mall  act  with  the  moft  pow. 
erful  effect  on  the  fpeclators,  and  produce  the 
completed  illufion-  Ke  is,  therefore,  molt  ap- 
plauded, and  bears  thehighefl  price,  who  appears- 
leaft  himfelf,  and  perfonates  moft  fuccefsfully  the 
affumed  character.  Should  an  uncivilized  fon  of 
nature  be  introduced  into  our  European  circles, 
he  .would,  atfirft,  conclude  that  humanity  and 
benevolence  had  there  fixed  their  abode.  But, 
as  foon  as  he  was  informed  that  all  this  was  but 
fcenery  and  ftage  effect,  he  would  be  uncertain 
whether  moft  to  admire  the  fkill  with  which  the 
reprefentation  was  conducted,  or  to  deteft  the 
duplicity  which  could  fo  completely  affume  the 
appearance  of  qualities,  of  which  the  reality  was 
wanting*. 

By  thefe  different  infractions  of  the  original 
rights  of  man  above  mentioned,  fociety  is  reduced 
to  its  prefent  unhappy  condition,  in  which  the 
Hobbefian  ftate  of  nature  appears  in  the  midft  of 

*  See  Roufleau,  Difcours  fur  les  Sciences  et  lea  Arte,  p.  it. 

Ma 


(     I3«     ) 

civilifation  and  refinement.  The  interefts,  the 
purfuits,  and  the  paffions  of  men  conftantly  a&ing 
in  oppofition,  infpire,  in  the  midft  of  unceaiing 
competition,  unremitting  caution  and  folicitous. 
jealoufy.  The  fpecious  maik  of  civility  and  com- 
plaifance  is  often  affumed  to  conceal  the  moft 
hoflile'  defigns.  The  language  of  nature  is  un- 
known, and  the  warm  expreiTions  of  affection  ei- 
ther fall  to  the  ground  deftitute  of  all  meaning,, 
or  are  perverted  to  convey  an  ironical  conception 
of  contempt  and  diflike*. 

How  different  would  be  the  face  of  fociety,  if 
thejuft  equality  of  mankind  were  duly  confldered, 
and  the  inherent  rights  of  human  nature  reflect- 
ed as  they  ought !  But  this  confummation,  de- 
voutly to  be  wifhed,  will  only  take  place,  when 
men  ihall  believe  and  praftife  Chriftianity,  and  da 
the  will  of  their  heavenly  Father  on  earth,  as  it  is 
done  in  Heaven. 


*  Fugere  pudor,  verumque  fidefque  ; 
In  quorum  fubiere  locum,  fraudefque,  dcliquc, 
lufidiaeque,  et  vis,  et  amor  fccleratus  habendi. 

Qyid.  Metam.  1.  I.  Y.  ijp. 


f  137  ) 


CHAPTER       III. 

The  duties  ofthofe  who  are  placed  in  the  inferior 

stations  o/life,  or  endowed -with  inferior, 

capacities  and  powers. 


1 


F  the  diftribution  of  abilities  illuftrated  in  the 
firft  Book*,  and  a  diverfity  of  ranks  in  fociety,  be 
beft  calculated  to  promote  the  happinefs,  not  only 
of  the  focial  body  in  general,  but  of  every  indi- 
vidual that  compofes  it,  how  iniquitous  and  unrea- 
fonable  is  it  to  oppofe  this  plan,  and  to  complain 
of  its  arrangement,  becaufe  it  coincides  not  with 
the  fuggeftions  of  ambition  and  caprice  ?  When 
men  defpife  thofe  talents  and  that  rank  in  life 
which  divine  providence  has  allotted  them,  and 
afpire  at  others  for  which  they  were  never  defign- 
ed  by  nature,  they  aim  at  fubverting  that  equali- 
ty of  obligation  which  afligns  particular  duties  to 
particular  abilities  and  fituations,  and  requires 
them  to  be  anfwered  by  others  of  a  difFerent  or- 
der.    For,  if  every  man  is  at  liberty  to  defert 

*  Chap.  z. 

Ms 


t  138  ) 

the  poft  afiigned  him,  and  to  invade  another's  pro- 
vince, how  mall  the  inferior  ftations  be  filled, 
which  are  not  lefs  neceifary  to  the  general  welfare 
than  the  more  eminent?  If,  in  the  circumftances- 
in  which  any  given  number  of  men  can  be  placed, 
there  be  unavoidable  hard/hips  and  inconveniences, 
why  mould  thefe  rather  be  fupported  by  fuch  as 
have  never  been  accuflomed  to  them,  and  are 
therefore  totally  unqualified  for  their  duties,  than 
by  thofe  whom  education,  and  habit,  have 
beft  adapted  to  fuchfituations?  Yet,  unlefs  thefe 
inconveniences  be  endured,  thefe  difficulties  en- 
countered by  fome,  the  ftations  in  queftion  rauft 
be  deferted,  and  a  void  left  in  the  order  of  fbcie- 
ty  equally  pernicious  to  public  and  to  private  in--  , 
terenV 

Still,  men  complain  of.  their  fituation,  and  ea- 
gerly afpire  to  others  more  exalted  !  But,  is  there 
any  real  foundation  for  this  difcontent,  for  this 
reftlefs  defire  of  change  ?  Is  it,  as  people  pretend, 
that  their  prefent  condition  is  more  painful,  more 
adverfe  to  virtue,  more  inaufpicious  to  the  devel- 
opment and  exercife  of  their  powers,  than  thofe 
which  they  fo  fondly  defire?  Or  is  it  that  men, 
are  better  acquainted  with  the  difficulties  and 
temptations  of  their  prefent  fituation,  than  with 
thofe  of  any  other,  have  fondly  magnified  theis 


C    139-    ) 

own  abilities,  and  ignorantly  placed  all  excellence 
in  the  dif charge  of  the  duties  of  f  uperior  flations? 
If  we  examine  the  cafe  with  impartial  attention, 
we  fhall  findnoreafon  to  hefitate  in  determining^ 
the  queftion. 

Men  readily  grant  the  complaints  of  thofe 
who  are  placed  above  them  to  be  ill  founded,  and 
afcribe  their  difTatisfa&ion  to  their  folly.  They 
haftily  prefume  that,  if  they  were  fixed  in  their 
fituation,  they  would  eafily  furmount  its  difficul- 
ties, refill  its  temptations,  and  fully  difcharge  its 
duties.  Their  inferiors  pronounce  the  fame  judg- 
ment with  regard  to  them  and  their  circumftances, 
and,  if  they  envy,  they  are  envied  in  their  turn. 
A  convincing  proof  this,  that,  in  every  conditi- 
on, there  are  advantages  as  well  as  difficulties ; 
that,  though  none  is  exempted  from  inconvenience, 
none  is  abfolutely  infupportable  ;  and  that  difcon- 
tent  with  a  prefent  ftation,  and  impatient  defire 
of  a  higher,  proceed  from  rmftaken  notions  of 
both. 

I  beg  that  it  may  be  confidered  that  I  am,  at 
prefent,  fpeaking  only  of  the  different  ranks  and 
fituationsof  human  ibciety,  as  they  are  diverfified 
for  the  common  happinefs  of  mankind  ;  and  nor 
of  thofe  fingular  conditions  of  diftrefs  and  miier.yy 


(      *4°     ) 

which  fall  to  the  lot  of  individuals.  In  thefe,  pa- 
tience and  fortitude  may  be  recommended  as  du- 
ties and  as  confolations ;  but  contentment  can  hard- 
ly be  required. 

But,  in  furveying  the  different  ftations  of  life, 
although  men  grant  that  there  are  difficulties  and 
hardihips  in  all  of  them,  they  frill  believe  that 
thefe  diminifh  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  ele- 
vation; and  fall,  with  the  greateft  weight,  on 
tbofe  who  occupy  the  loweft  places-  They  fond- 
ly imagine,  that,  if  they  could  afcend  to  a  confi- 
derable  height,  they  mould  there  find  fome  agree- 
able fpot,  where,  unmolefted  and  compofed,  they 
might  furvey  the  fteep  which  they  had  climbed, 
and  enjoy  the  delightful  profpecl  opened  around 
them.  But,  they  reflect  not  on  the  difficulty  of 
the  aicent,  on  the  giddinefs  of  the  fituation,  or, 
if  they  mould  chance  to  flip,  on  the  fe verity  of 
the  fall.  The  preffure  of  corporeal  wants,  the 
burden  of  daily  labour,,  and  the  humiliation  uf 
contempt,  conftitute  the  primary  pains  of  a  poor 
and  ignoble  condition.  It  is  further  deprived  of 
the  enjoyments  which  retail  from  the  cultivation 
of  reafon,  and  of  the  other  nobler  faculties  of  the 
foul,  and  is  conftrained  to  toil  amidft  the  darknefs 
of  ignorance.  If  tbofe,  to  whofe  mare  it  falls, 
feel  for  the  miferies  of  others,   they  are  deftitiae 


(     i4i     ) 

of  the  means  of  relieving  them,  and  muft  fbifcfr 
the  pangs  of  companion,  without  the  divine  fatif- 
faction  of  beneficence.  Prefled  with  their  own 
diftrefTes,  feeling  for  thofe  in  (Imilar,  or  in  ftill 
more  afflicting  circumftances,  and  cbferving  the  fu- 
perfluiiy  of  the  ions  of  fortune,  they  are  apt  to 
envy  their  profperity,  to  murmur  at  the  Divine 
difpenfations,  and  to  practice  violence  or  fraud, 
in  order  to  obtain  what  their  (Ituation  has  denied 
them. 

They  confider  not,  however,  that  the  pleafures 
of  life  depend  not  fo  much  on  the  externals  of 
condition  as  on  the  difpoiitions  of  the  poiTefTor  ; 
that  what  feems  calculated  tofatisfy,  and  to  limit, 
defire,  ferves  often  to  inflame  and  extend  it  ;  that 
the  enjoyments  which  are  in  men's  power  are  not 
thofe  which  they  really  tafte  ;  and  that  to  wiih 
and  to  purine  is  the  unceating  employment  of 
man  upon  earth.  He  who  afcends  a  mountain, 
and  beholds  the  view  unfolding  around  him,  is 
fired  with  greater  curiofity  to  reach  the  f'ummit, 
whence  the  utmoft  bounds  of  the  proipecl  can  be 
defcried.  In  lik3  manner,  no  moderare  exaltati- 
on in  the  fcale  of  ibcicty  can  futisfy  men,  whole 
ambition  is  kindled,  and  whofe  activity  engaged. 
Every  ftep  becomes  only  a  help  to  rife  higher; 
and  deiire  continues  importunate  even  after  its 


f    1-42-    7 

©bje&s  are  all  exhauflech  Alexander  is  the  true 
emblem  of  ambition,  which  is  reitleis  while  any. 
thing  remains  above  it ;  and,  when  it  has  reached 
the  fummitof.  its  defir.es,  weeps  that  the  progreis 
is  finiflied ! 

Ye  who  envy  fortune  and  rank,  not  fo  much 
for  the  fenfual  pleasures,  or  the  indulgences  of 
vanity  and  pride  which  they  afford,  as  for  the 
iublime  and  elegant  enjoyments  which  they  lie  em 
to  offer,  in- the  improvement  of  knowledge,  the 
cultivation  of  genius,  and  the  exercife  of  th-3  no- 
bleft  virtues  of  human  nature — fay  if  the  engage- 
ments of  public  bufinefs,  the  contentions  of' am- 
bition, the  interruptions  of  company,  ia?  endlefe 
exactions  of  ceremony,  the  allurements  of  plea- 
fure,  can  afford  much  lcifure  for  the  improvement 
of  the  mind,  and  the  cultivation  of  elegant  flu- 
dies;  or  that,  when  the  reputation  of  wifdom,  of 
learning,  or  of  wit,  is  acquired  without  judgment, 
application,  or  parts,  and  flattery  amply  fupplies 
every  deficiency,  there  is  any  incitement  to  fuch 
noble  and  pleafing  purfuits  ?  In  a  low  and  indigent 
ftation,  are  there  greater  temptations  to  difcon- 
tent  and  envy,  than  when  fuccefs  inflames  ambi- 
tion, and  ambition  fpurns  every  inferior  degree? 
Are  the  motives  ftronger  to  cultivate  honefty, 
andtoob-ferve  the  dictates  of  juftice,  when  the 


(     M3    1 

feverity  of  punifhment  hangs  over  the  head  of  th« 
offender,  than  when  concealment  is  promifed  by 
intereft,  inquiry  removed  by  intrigue,  or  impuni- 
ty fecured  by  power  ?  Is  there  lefs  fympathy  with 
the  diftrefs,  or  lei's  fmcere  joy  on  the  profperity 
of  others,  when  men  are  reminded  of  their  fuf- 
ferings  by  the  experience  of  their  own,  and  de- 
pend for  fubfiftence  on  their  bounty  and  good  opi- 
nion— than  when  luxury  removes  even  the  afpect 
of  want,  and  opulence  fecures  independence  ?  Is 
there  lefs  piety  and  devotion,  lefs  reverence  for 
God,  when  men  literally  implore  him  for  daily 
bread,  and  depend  for  its  fupply  on  the  continu- 
ance of  health,  and  on  the  fertility  of  the  fea- 
fons,  than  when,  having  much  goods  laid  up  for 
many  years,  they  eat,  drink,  and  are  merry* ,  and 
-the  immoderate  draughts  of  plenty  render  them 
forgetful  of  the  bountiful  hand  that  beftows  it? 

Suppofing,  after  all,  that  the  advantages  of  cul- 
tivation and  virtue  are  fully  improved  by  thole  in 
the  higher  ftations,  in  what  do  theie  exceed  the 
lame  advantages  of  the  inferior,  fo  as  to  render 
them  objects  of  envy,  or  caufes  of  dif content  .? — 
Has  not  every  member  of  Chriftian  fociety  fuffici- 
ent  opportunity  of  acquiring  the  fublimeft  and  moft 

*  Luke,  xii.  19. 


(     1 44     ) 

tifefol  branches  of  human  knowledge— the  origin^ 
the  duties,  and  the  destination  of  man — the  rela- 
tion in  which  he  ftands  to  his  Creator  and  to  his 
fellow  men — the  divine  nature  and  perfections — 
the  gracious  plan  of  falvation  the  Deity  has  pub- 
lished to  guilty  mortals,  by  the  mouth  of  his  own 
Son,  and   by  his  infpired  Apoftles — the  glorious 
profpects  opened    to   his  penitent   and   amended 
children   beyond   the    grave,     and    the   gracious 
means  he  hath  inftitu ted  for  their  perfection  and 
felicity  ?  Do  not  the  heavens,    the  ocean  and  the 
earth,  unfold   their   magnificent   and  numberlefs 
beauties  to  the  eye  of  the  peafant,  as   well  as   to 
that  of  the  monarch  ;  nay,  do  they  not  difclofe  to 
the  former  many  ravifhing  fcenes,  which  the  lat- 
ter can  feldom  behold  ?  Are  not  many  even  of  the 
moft  ftriking  and  admirable  difplays  of  art,  which 
riches  have  produced,    and  continue  to   Support, 
equally  enjoyed  by  the  meaneit  palfenger,  as  by 
the  proprietor  himfelf?     It   is  a  grofs  miftake  to 
iuppofe,  that  to  provide  for  one's  family  by  afiidu- 
"ous  and  honeit  labour,  is  lefs  meritorious  than  to 
fupply  the  poor  out  of  an  opulent  fortune  ;   that 
patience  is  lefs  commendable  than  generofity,  re- 
ficmation  than  mtmlficence,  meeknefs,  than  mode- 
ration,  contentment  than  condefeenfiori  ;   that  £o- 
ciety  is  lefs   benefited  by  being  furnifhed  with  the 
Tieceflarfes  of  life,  than  by  being  adorned  with  the 


(     145    ) 

refinements  of  art,  and  by  the  productions  of  ge* 
hius  ;  that  the  public  welfare  is  lefs  promoted  by 
dutiful  (ubmhTion  to  lawful  authority,  by  an  inof- 
fenfive,  regular,  and  ferviceable  conduct,  than  by 
the  enaction  of  falutary  laws,  by  the  judgment 
and  punifhment  of  offenders,  and  by  a  zealous  and 
difinterefted  difcharge  of  public  truft.  God  ac- 
cepts no  lefs  the  artlefs  devotion  of  the  grateful, 
though  uninftru&ed,  heart,  than  the  copious  and 
fwelling  praifes  of  the  enlightened  underftanding* 
The  cOarfer  and  brawny  mufcles  are  as  necefTaiy 
to  the  perfection  of  the  body,  as  the  organs  of  the 
moft  delicate  texture. 

It  is  thus  evident,  that  real  happinefs  and  virtu£ 
are  not  limited  to  any  ftation,  but  are  equally  open 
to  all.  If  there  ifs  any  exception  to  this  conclu- 
fion,  itmuftbe  in  favor  of  the  middling  fpheres  of 
life— in  which  neither  power  and  opulence  tempt 
to  oppremon  and  dhTolutenefs  of  manners,  nor 
poverty  and  ignorance  lead  to  fraud  and  violence  ; 
in  which  neither  pride  hardens  the  foul,  nor  fervi- 
lity  debafes  it  ;  in  which  the  beft  enjoyments  of 
life  are  offered,  and  itsgreateft  enticements  to  cor- 
ruption excluded. 

From  all  that  has  been  faid  on  this  fubject,  it 
clearly  appears,  chat  as  it  is  the  duty,  it  is  equally1 

N 


(     1 46     ) 

the  intereft  of  all  who  are  placed  in  the  inferior 
ranks  of  life,  to  difcharge,  with  diligence  and  af- 
fiduity  the  humble  offices  of  their  ftation,  to  cul- 
tivate contentment  with  their  lot,  and  to  fupprefs 
the  emotions  of  envy  towards  thofe  who  are  more 
exalted. 

]t  may  indeed  be  objected,  that  the  defire  of 
rifing  is  one  of  the  moft  powerful  motives  to  the 
honeft  and  active  difcharge  of  every  focial  duty, 
that  one  great  point  of  equality  among  men  confifts 
in  the  opportunity  which  all  ought  to  enjoy  of  ex- 
ercifing  their  ufeful  or  elegant  abilities,  and  that, 
if  every  one  is  to  reft  fatisfied  with  the  condition 
in  which  his  birth  or  his  circumftances  have  plac- 
ed him,  exertion  muft  be  difcouraged,  and  the 
general  welfare  be  deprived  of  the  benefit  which 
reiults  from  honeft  and  generous  ambition.  We 
have,  moreover,  mown  above,  that  frequent  ex- 
change of  ranks  and  conditions  feems  to  compofe 
a  part  of  the  divine  adminiftration  of  human  af- 
fairs. If  thofe,  therefore,  whole  fituation  is  at 
prefent  ignoble  and  deprefled,  are  to  confider  it 
as  a  duty  never  to  afpire  higher,  one  of  the  ftrong- 
eft  checks  is  removed  from  pride,  namely,  the  un- 
certainty of  its  elevation,  while  dejection  and  po- 
verty are  deprived  of  one  of  their  moft  powerful 
confolations— the  expectation  of  more  profperous 
davs. 


f    147     ) 

It  ought,,  however,  to  be  confidered,  that  the" 
doftrine  above  inculcated  tends  not  to  preclude 
laudable  ambition  and  induftry,  but  only  to  fup- 
prefs,  on  the  one  hand,  difcontent,  avarice,  and 
envy,  and  to  remove  every  pretext  for  indulging 
thefe  paflions  under  the  fpecious  colorings  of 
more  elevated  and  generous  motives  ;  and,  on  the 
other,  to  comfort  and  ftrengthen  thofe  who  are 
apt  to  view  their  inferior  ftations  with  an  undif- 
cerning  eye,  .which  beholds  affliction  where  hap- 
pinefs  may  be  found,  and  degradation  where  true 
dignity  may  refide.  Nay,  if  our  limits  admitted 
of  it,  it  might  eafily  be  iliown,  that  the  faithful 
difcharge  of  the  duties  of  an  inferior  ftation,  and 
that  contented  and  cheerful  mind  which  partakes 
of  its  greateft  enjoyments,  are  the  fureft  andfafeft 
means  of  advancement.  I  mail  fatisfy  myfelf,  how- 
ever, with  pointing  out,  in  the  following  Chapter, 
fome  important  cautions  with  refpect  to  the  im- 
provement of  our  condition. 


N2 


f  *48  ; 


CHAPTER       IV, 


cautions  to   be   obferved  in  the    pursuit   of  a 
higher  and  more  flourishing  condition. 


I.  I  HE  clefire  of  improving  one's  circum- 
stances ought  nevsr  to  lead  to  encroachment  on 
the  rights  of  others,  whether  natural  or  acquired- 
By  the  violation  of  the  former,  the  fundamental 
principles  of  fociety  are  fubverted  ;  and,  by  that 
of  the  latter,  the  order  neceflary  to  its  exiftence, 
is  deftroyed.  Whoever,  therefore,  pretends  to 
maintain  any  of  the  natural  rights  of  man,  by 
overturning  that  fubordination  and  juft  ordery 
which  is  the  foul  and  the  life  of  fociety,  defeats  the 
very  purpofe  which  he  has  in  view,  and  exhibits 
either  egregious  folly  or  egregious  wickednefs. 
In  either  cafe,  he  becomes  a  dangerous  enemy  to 
the  public  intereft,  who  is  to  be  retrained  and 
punilhed,  to  prevent  him  both  from  injuring  others 
by  his  practice,  and  corrupting  them  by  his  exam- 
ple.    Such,  however,  is  the  intemperance  of  hu- 


(     149    ) 

man  paflions,  even  thofe  of  the  moft  generous 
kind,  when  they  are  ftrongly  excited,  that  the 
ardor  of  liberty,  and  indignation  at  oppreflion, 
often  hurry  men  to  purfue  a  condud  directly  re- 
pugnant to  the  principles  of  equity  and  beneficence 
Avhich  they  profefs — to  opprefs  others  when  they 
are  contending  for  freedom  ;  to  be  moft  iniquity 
ous  in  defence  of  juftice  ;  and,  with  a  view  to  pro- 
mote the  welfare  of  fociety,  to  overturn  its  foun- 
dations.  Let  the  times  in  which  we  live,  declare, 
ihmanyinftances,  the  truth  of  this  after  trion. 

II.  The  duties  of  the  ftation,  which  people  al- 
ready occupy,  ought  to  limit  their  endeavors  af- 
ter advancement-  The  co-operation  of  every  in- 
dividual for  the  public  good,  m  uft  firft 'difplay  its 
energy  in  the  fphere  in  which  he  moves,  and  be 
thence  tranfmitted  to  the  other  parts  of  the  faci- 
al body.  By  neglecting  the  duties  of  his  prefent 
ftation,  a  perfon  with-holds  the  portion  he  is  ap- 
pointed to  contribute  to  the  general  welfare,  and, 
by  encroaching  on  the  province  of  others,  may 
dog  their  exertion  and  fruftrate  their  utility.  To 
arrive  at  a  more  agreeable  or  more  honorable  fta- 
tion, the  faithful  discharge  of  the  duties  of  a  pre- 
fent one  ought  always  to  be  the  firftmeans  em- 
ployed. When  thefe  are  fulfilled,  every  fair  and. 
honeft  exertion  is  not  only  lawful,  but  even  high* 
N3 


(     *5°    ) 

)y  laudable,  as  the  great-eft  activity  of  the  party 
then  advances  more  effectually  the  profperity  of 
the  whole*  By  embracing  the  opportunities 
which  occur,  and  by  exercifmg  the  talents  with 
which  men  are  endowed,  they  manifeft  their  gra- 
titude to  Providence,  and  they  improve  its  gifts 
to  the  greateft  advantage. 

III.  The  duties  of  any  ftation  to  which  men 
afpire,  and  their  own  ability  to  difcharge  them,, 
ought  to  be  contidered  before  they  attempt  to  ob- 
tain it.  For,  to  occupy  a  ftation  for  which  one 
has  no  capacity,  or  with  the  duties  of  which  he  is 
totally  unacquainted,  is  both  to  expofe  his  own 
folly,  and  to  injure  fociety,  by  betraying  a  truft 
which  is  committed  to  him-  Hence,  it  is  of  the 
utmoft  confequence  to  acquire  a  complete  know- 
ledge of  our  own  talents  and  qualities,  which  the 
generality  of  mankind  are  fo  apt  to  magnify,  both, 
to  their  own  difgrace,  and  to  the  detriment  of 
others.  Inability  to  difcharge  the  duties  of  any 
ftation,  refulting  whether  from  narrownefs  of 
underftanding,  from  unhappinefs  of  temper,  or- 
from  infirmity  of  body,  mould  be  deemed  an  ex- 
press declaration  of  the  Divine  will  againft  the 
acquirement  of  it,  and,  of  confequence,  a  boundary 
not  to  be  pafled. 


(     *»     ) 

IV.  Men's  exertions  to  improve  their  conditi- 
on mould  be  influenced  by  the  confideration  of  the 
enlargement,  or  the  contraction,  of  their  utility. 
From  the  light  in  which  every  man  appears  as  a 
member  of  human  fociety,  to  whofe  benefit  he  is 
bound  to  contribute  in  the  mod  ample  manner 
poffible,  it  is  plain  that  it  can  never  be  lawful  for 
any  one  to  change  his  prefent  fituation  for  ano- 
ther, in  which  his  utility  muft  be  impaired.  This 
is  to  prefer  private  to  public  intereft,  to  pervert 
the  quality  of  member,  to  demand  more  than  is 
compenfated,  and  to  lofe  all  that  dignity  and  real 
enjoyment  which  refult  from  the  raoft  extenfive 
beneficence* 

If,  in  the  ftation  defired,  men  may  be  equally 
ufeful,  as  in  that  which  they  occupy,  private  in- 
tereft may  be  allowed  its  full  force*  If,  together 
with  advancement,  opportunities  of  utility  increafe, 
every  private  and  public  confideration  happily 
unites  in  ftimulating  tothepurfuit  of  it,  and  every 
generous  heart  will  wilh  and  applaud  the  fuccefs- 

Thus,  the  rights  of  others,  the  duties  of  a  pre- 
fent ftation,  the  talents  requifite  for  a  higher,  and 
the  more  extenfive  utility,  are  the  limits  within 
which  men  ought  to  confine  their  exertions  for 
the  improvement  of  their  circumftances.     Thus^ 


juft'ice,  diligence,  ability,  and  public  fpirit,  mould 
be  the  conitant  attendants  in  the  path  of  advance- 
ment,, and  the  chief  forwarders  of  the  progrefs. 

But,  how  fittTe  are  thefeconfiderations  regard- 
ed !  When  intereftor  pleafure  are  constituted  the 
fole  fprings  of  action,  every  duty  that  has  no  ten- 
dency to  advance  their  ends  is  neglected,  and  of- 
fices, inftituted  for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  are 
fhamefully  perverted  to  their  prejudice.  When 
the  project  is  formed  of  rifing  to  preferment 
without  regard  to  merit,  birth,  intereft,  or  party- 
attachmsnts,  are  the  only  valid  grounds  of  pre- 
tenfion.  To  the  moft  felHfii  confiderations  the  moff 
important  interefts  of  fociety  are  facrificed.  Be- 
fore children  can  difcover  either  inclination  or  ca- 
pacity, offices  are  defigned  for  them,  and  kept 
conftantly  in  view  ;  nor  were  this  to  be  cenfured, 
if  proper  care  were  taken  to  give  them  a  fuitable 
education,  and  their  deftination  changed,  when 
their  temper  and  talents  were  perceived  to  be  in- 
compatible with  it.  But  thefe  things  are  feldom 
much  confidered.  Whatever  be  the  genius  or  im- 
provements of  the  perfon  in  queftion,  he  muft 
move  in  the  particular  fph'ere  which  has  been  cho- 
fen  for  him.  The  public  welfare  is  treated  as  a 
chimera,  which  it  is  the  bufmefs  of  a  man  well  {kil- 
led in  the  w*ays  of  the  world  to  ufe  as  a  color  to 


I  153  ) 

yarnifh  the  moil:  interefted  defigns,  but  wKicH 
none,  but  an  enthufiaftic  or  vulgar  mind,  can  think 
of  adopting  as  a  real  object  of  purfuit.  When 
the  public  welfare,  however,  is  obflru&ed,  private 
happinefs  cannot  long  be  enjoyed.  For,  as  one 
chief  caufe  of  the  diforder  and  corruption,  which 
fo  often  lay  wafte  civil  fociety,  is  the  little  atten- 
tion which  is  ihown  to  adapt  men's  condition  to 
their  abilities  and  tempers  ;  fo  the  mifery  of  in- 
dividuals frequently  fprings  from  the  fame  fource* 
Men  moving  in  a  fphere  for  which  they  were  ne- 
ver defignedby  nature,  foongrow  difgufced  with 
their  lot,  and,  finding  the  duties  of  their  ftation 
irkfome  and  oppreffive,  either  neglect  them  alto- 
gether, to  iheir  own  irretrievable  difgrace,  or 
continue  to  difcharge  them,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  is 
equally  painful  to  themfelves,  and  detrimental  to 
others.  Thus,  Divine  Providence  takes  ven- 
geance on  mankindfor infringing  its  appointments, 
by  allowing  them  to  be  bewildered  in  their  errors^ 
and  the  victims  of  their  own  infatuation. 


(     >54     ) 


CHAPTER        V. 

The  duties  of  thofe  placed  in  the  higher  ranks 
©/.life,  and  endowed  -with   distinguished 

ABILITIES. 


I 


T  is  certainly  no  eafy  matter  for  a  perfon  not 
'to  confider  himfclf  as  greatly  fuperior  to  the  reft 
of  his  fpecies,  when  everyone  of  thofe  who  fur- 
round  him  pretends  that  his  honor  and  dignity, 
his  pleafure  and  fervice,  are  the  only  objects  which 
occupy  himfelf,  and  ought  to  occupy  every  other; 
when  every  one  applauds,  with  fervile  adulation, 
his  moft  infignificant  fayings,  and  moft  ridiculous 
actions,  and  adores  him  as  the  fource  of  wifdom, 
and  the  centre  of  power.  When  a  perfon  has  fo 
many  occasions  of  beholding  his  fellow  men  in  a 
contemptible  light,  it  muft  require  angelic  mode- 
ration to  abftain  from  treating  them  accordingly; 
to  neglect  thofe  advantages  which  his  circumftan- 
ces  and  their  fervility  put  into  his  hands  for  gra- 
tifying his  own  paffions  and  caprice,  at  the  ex- 
pence  of  their  moft  valuable  mterefts.. 


(     155    ) 

When,  therefore,  I  confider  this  ftate  of  things, 
far  from  being  furnrifed  at  the  pride,  and  impa- 
tience of  contradidion,  which  often  characterise 
the  higher  ranks  of  life,  or  any  fpecies  of  diftinc- 
tion  and  eminence,  I  am  more  difpofed  to  admire 
the  condefcenfion  and  humanity  which  they  fo 
frequently  exhibit.  For,thefe  vices,  though  more 
obfervable  in  the  higher  fpheres,  becaufe  they  are 
difplayed  in  a  more  confpicuous  point  of  view,  are 
by  no  means  confined  to  thefe,  but  pervade  every 
rank,  every  fituation  and  profeihon  of  life.  Hardly 
■any  attainments  fo  low,  any  circumftances  fo  cir- 
cumfcribed,  as  not  to  afford  fcope  for  felf-fufficiency 
and  oftentation.  Who  will  notfeem  great,  if  he 
is  as  highly  exalted  as  his  ideas  of  greatnefs  reach, 
and  compares  himfelf  only  with  his  inferiors  :  if 
heeftimates  his  own  knowledgeby  another's  igno- 
rance, his  own  wifdom  by  another's  folly,  his 
own  power  by  another's  impotence,  his  own  wealth 
by  another's  poverty,  his  own  virtue  by  another's 
depravity?  On  what  other  foundation,  than  on 
this  partial  mode  of  comparifon,  are  built  the 
pride  and  arrogance  of  even  the  moft  exalted  of 
mankind?  But,  if  we  abandon  this  magical  glafs, 
which  transforms  the  cottage  into  a  palace,  and 
the  infant  into  a  man,  and  contemplate  objects  in 
the  true  light  of  nature,  we  fhall  find,  that  the 
great  difpute  only  is,  who    mail  be  efteemed  the 


(  156  ) 

leaft  ignorant,  the  leaft  fooliih,  the  leaft  weak* 
the  leaft:  indigent,  the  leaft  corrupted  ;  that  pride 
and  infolence,  which  fubvert  the  parity  of  obliga- 
tion fubfiliing  among  all,  fhould  be  baniilied  from 
every  human  bread,  and  that  thofe  who  move  in 
the  higheft  and  molt  illuftrious  fpheres,  having 
the  beft  opportunities  of  enlarging  their  minds, 
ought  to  regulate  their  opinions  by  their  own 
knowledge,  not  by  the  ignorance  of  their  inferi- 
ors, to  acquire  real  dignity  >  -by  divefiing  them- 
felves  of  paffions,  which  are  born  of  ignorance, 
and  nouriihed  by  delufion ;  and,  by  moderation, 
equity,  affability,  and  condefcenfion,  to  conciliate 
'benevolence,  enfure  refpect,  make  the  rays  of 
virtue  eclipfe  the  fplendors  of  fortune,  and  efta- 
blifh  a  throne  which  me  neither  can  erecl:  nor 
overturn. 

Would  men,  divefting  themfelves,  for  a  mo- 
ment, of  the  prejudices  which  birth,  education, 
or  luxurious  habits,  have  fixed  in  their  minds,  fur- 
vey,  with  the  eye  of  reafon,  the  coriiftru&ion  of 
fociety,  the  principles  on  which  it  refts,  and  the 
ends  which  it  purfues,  and  then  contemplate  the 
nature  and  perfections  of  the  univerfal  parent — 
what  a  different  light  would  be  thrown  on  their 
condition  and  circumftances,  and  how  different  a 
profpect  be  difclofed  to  them,  from  that  which 


(     r57     ) 

they  have  been  accuftomed  to  behold  through  the 
mills  of  ignorance,  or  the  twilight  of  fell-decep- 
tion !  Would  it  be  poflible  for  them  to  fuppcfe  that  ^ 
the  Deity  lavilhes  his  bounty  on  individuals  ca- 
pricioufly  elected,  merely  for  their  plea  Cure  and 
profit,  and  not  with  any  view  to  the  univerfal  be- 
nefit ;  that  he  has  befiowed  on  one  authority  and 
power,  in  order  that  he  may  encroach  on  the  li- 
berties, invade  the  properties,  and  overawe  the 
confciences  of  his  brethren,  and  not  that  he  may 
protect  innocence,  reftrain  oppreflion,  and  main- 
tain inviolate  the  interefts  of  juftice,  of  religion, 
and  of  truth;  that,  on  another,  he  has  conferred 
wealth  and  fuperfluity,  only  to  furnifh  him  with 
the  means  of  indulging  in  luxury,  or  of  wallow- 
ing in  intemperance,  and  not  to  open  to  him  a 
treafure  for  the  fupply  of  indigence,  the  relief  of 
diftrefs,  the  encouragement  of  indufhy,  and  the 
reward  of  merit;  that  he  has  adorned  a  third 
with  fagacity  and  genius,  that  he  may  find  an  a- 
greeable  amufement  for  himfelf,  gratify  his  paf- 
fion  for  admiration,  miflead  the  judgments,  and 
corrupt  the  hearts  of  his  fellow  men,  not  that  he 
may  enlighten,  and  improve,  and  lead  them  to 
happinefs,  through  the  path  of  virtue?  Can  any, 
man  of  a  found  mind,  who  allows  himfelf  a  mo- 
ment's reflection,  impute  fuch  a  fcheme  to  infinite 
goodnefs  and  wifdom,  or  confider  it  in  any  other 
O 


(     158    ) 

light  than  in  that  of  the  moft  atrocious  rebellion 
againft  the  Divine  government  ? — Aperfon,  raif. 
ed  to  a  high  office,  placed  in  exalted  rank,  or  a- 
dorned  by  diftinguifhed  abilities,  is  eftablimed  on 
an  eminence  that  his  views  of  the  general  good 
may  be  more  extenfive  and  correct,  and  that  he 
may  apply,  to  its  advancement,  the  powers  he 
pofTelles  with  the  greater  advantage  and  fuccefs. 
As  on  an  eminence,  therefore,  the  eye  is  diverted 
from  proximate  to  remoter  objects;  fo,  in  an  exalt- 
ed ftation,  the  narrow  concerns  of  felf  fliould  be 
lefs  regarded  than  the  grand  and  magnificent 
range  which  the  public  welfare  prefents  to  the 
mind. 

Nor  does  this  view  of  things  diminifh,  in  the 
fmalleft  degree,  the  advantages  refulting  from 
eminent  rank,  fortune,  or  abilities;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  greatly  enhances  them.  For,  if  we  ex- 
clude the  opportunities  which  thefe  afford  of 
widely  difFufing  benefic&nt  influence,  and,  with 
the  imitation  of  the  divine  perfections,  of  fharing 
in  fome  meafure  the  divine  felicity  ;  what  elfe  re- 
mains but  the  meaneft  gratifications  of  human  na- 
ture, but  an  augmentation  of  mifery  with  an  aug- 
mentation of  vice,  and  a  total  degradation  of  all 
that  diftinguifhes  man  from  the  brutes?  If  the 
rich  enjoy  not  the  pleafure  of  munificence,  of  clo- 


(     i59    ) 

thing  the  naked,  of  feeding  the  hungry,  of  fup- 
porting  the  falling  family,  of  rearing  the  orphan, 
of  fweetening  the  cup  of  fhame-faced  uncomplain- 
ing poverty,  without  ruffling  the  veil  that  hides 
her  from  public  view  ;  if  the  powerful  are  denied 
the  fatisfaction  of  protecting  innocence,  of  reftrain- 
ing  oppreflion,  of  drawing  modeft  merit  from  its 
retirement,  and,  by  the  jufl  reward  of  honour, 
of  rendering  it  confpicuous  and  exemplary,  of  de- 
fending fubitantial  virtue  againft  faction  and  in- 
trigue, and  of  promoting  the  public  good  by  no- 
ble and  ufeful  undertakings  ;  if  the  wife,  the  in- 
genious, and  the  learned,  are  denied  the  enjoy- 
ment of  comforting  affliction,  of  inftructing  igno- 
rance, of  directing  perplexity,  of  correcting  pre- 
judice, and  of  reclaiming  vice ;  what  remains 
but  the  more  copious  indulgence  of  fenfuality — «• 
but  the  gratifications  of  the  molt  ru thief s  pafiions 
that  convulfe  the  breafl  which  they  occupy — and 
the  indulgence  of  the  moll  contemptible,  though 
frequently  the  mofl  pernicious,  vanity,  difplayed 
by  attempting  to  fubvert  the  grand  principles  of 
morality,  and  to  poifon  the  d.vine  confolations  cf 
religion  ?  Is  there  in  thefe  any  thing  which  a  man 
of  judgment  would  value,  defire,  and  purfue,  as 
primary  objects  ?  Were  fuch  a  perfon  informed, 
on  his  firft  fetting  out  in  life,  that  fuch  would  be 
all  the  enjoyment  he  mould  reap  from  the  fondeft 

O    2 


(     i6o     ) 

objesfcs  of  his  purfuit — would  he  cohfider  the  pari 
chaie  as  a  fuffieieat  recompenfe  for  his  toil   and 
anxiety,  his  frequent  mortifications,  and  ainduous 
ftudy?     I  afTert  not  that  the  man,  who  devotes 
wholly  to  feJfifh  purpofes  the  advantages  lie  pof- 
fefies,  has  no  pleafure,  no  enjoyment.      The  fen-   , 
fua«ft,  the  miier,    the    vain,   the  ambitious,  the 
proud,  have  each  their  particular  gratifications. 
But  thefe  gratifications  are  unmanly  and  bale,  and 
fall  infinitely  fhort  of  the  delights  of  a  faithful  dif- 
charge  of  duty,  and  of  the  fubiime enjoyments  of 
beneficence.      Nor  can  it  be  alledged  that  enjoy- 
ments being  matters  of  tafle,  it  is  impoihble  to  as- 
certain their  comparative  values ;  becauie  every 
man  will  be  partial  to  his  own,   and,  while   the 
generous  extol  the  joys  of  beneficence,  the  felfim. 
will  ever  find  their  happinefs  in  thole  which  cen- 
ter in  themfelves.     For,  in  order  to  compare  the 
different  fourees  of  felicity,  it  is  neccflfary  to  tafle- 
them  ;   and  this  can  only  be  done  by  men  of  an 
exalted  and  capacious  foul,  who  can  reliih  in  the 
higheft  degree  both,  the  pleasures  which  attach  to 
felf,  and    thofe   which  refult  from  benevolence- 
13y  feeding  the  hungry,  does  any  man  fpoil    his 
own   appetite  ?   By  relieving  the   diflrefied,  does 
he  dhninifh  his  own  reliih  of  eafy  circumftances? 
By  maintaining  peace  and  order  in  fociety,  does  he 
tontrud  his  imagination,  or  diminilh  its  powers  J 


(     i6i     ) 

By  comforting  the  afflicted,  by  inftrutting  the  ig- 
norant, or  by  advifing  the  perplexed,  does  he 
render  his  conception  lefs  clear,  his  judgment  lef9 
folid,  or  his  memory  lefs  tenacious?  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  certain  that  a  contracted  felfiflinefs 
weakens  and  extinguifhes  the  benevolent  affections, 
nnd  excludes  the  pleafures  they  confer.  The  man 
who  leeks  in  wealth  only  the  means  of  indulging 
his  fenfuaiity,  and  promoting  his  convenience, 
who  afpires  at  power,  only  to  gratify  his  pride 
and  ambition,  or  who  purfues  knowledge  only  for 
his  own  amufement  or  vanity — fuch  a  man  can 
have  but  little  reliih  of  the  joys  that  fpring 
up  and  flourifh  in  a  focial  and  benevolent  heart*. 

What  is  it  that,  in  all  the  actions,  and  all  the 
characters,  whether  prefented  by  daily  obfervati- 
on,  recorded  in  hiitory,  or  figured  by  imagination, 
excites  admiration,  and  engages  efteem  ?  Is  it 
merely  extent  of  capacity,  fuperiority  of  ftation, 
or  largenefs  of  fortune  ;  or  is  it  liberality  of  {en^ 
timeiit,  and  kindnefs  of  heart  I  Place  the  faith- 
fu-i  friend,  the  affectionate  parent,  the  indulgent 


*  Hence  Ariftotle  very  juflly  aflerts,  In  feveral  places  cf  his 
Ethical  writings,  that  the  good  man  h  the  only  proptr  judge  ©f 
happinefs. 

03 


(     i<52     ) 

matter,  the  generous  patron,  the  incorrupt  ma- 
giftrate,  the  genuine  patriot,  in   the  mcfl  disad- 
vantageous circumstances;    let   him  be   funk  m 
poverty,  overwhelmed   with    difgrace,   tortured 
with  pain,  he  will  flu1!  preferve  his  dignity,  and 
command  our  refpecl !   Nay,  the  lefs  he  enjoys  of 
tlie  advantages,  and  the  more   he  fullers    of   the 
evils,  of  life,   the  more  glorious  will  he  appear  ! 
But  no  favorable  concurrence    of  circumftances, 
neither  the  gifts  of  nature,  the  accomplishments 
of  arts,  nor  the   fplendors  of  fortune  will  ever 
be  able  to  bribe  our  efteem  in  behalf,  I  fay,  not 
of  the   fenfualift,  the   villain,  or  the  tyrant,  but 
even  of  the  unfocial  folitary  mortal,  who,  though 
lie  offers   no  pofitive  injury   to   his   fpecies,  yet 
with-holdshis  endeavors  for  their  happinefs !  Nay, 
if  fuciTa  fuppofitionbe  not  impious,  remove  good- 
nefs  from    all    the   other    divine   attributes,   and 
fuppofe  the  Supreme  Being  unconcerned  for  the 
h'jppinefs  of  his  creation,  and  fay  whether  his 
nature  would  then  appear  as   amiable,    adorable, 
and  tranfcendently  excellent,  as  it  now  appears 
to  every  reflecting  mind.     And  if  goodnefs  con- 
flitute   the  fupreme  glory  of  the    divine  nature,, 
that  which   gives   to   every   other  perfection  its 
true   beauty  and   light,  and   completes  the   real 
character  of  Deity-ws  it  pcfTible  that  any  human 


excellence  or   advantage   fhould  coropenfate   for 
the  abfence  of  tins  primary  virtue  ? 

If  the  true  excellence  of  human  nature,  thus, 
confifts  in  benignity,  if  this  neceilarily  attracts 
the  regard  of  the  lelflm  themielves,  how  comes 
it  to  pais  that  fo  many,  who  have  the  nobleft  op- 
portunities of  gratifying  a  difpoiition  ib  beatific 
and  glorious,  can  be  reconciled  to  a  contrary  con- 
duct— to  fenfuality,  oppreffion,  and  perverfion 
of  the  fineft  abilities  >  The  weaknefs,  the  blind- 
nefs,  and  the  corruption  of  human  nature,  are 
the  only  fatisfactory  caufes  that  can  be  alledged* 

But,  even  in  adions  the  moll  apparently  felfifh 
and  groveling,  a  difcerning  eye  will  be  able  to 
difcover  fone  faint  gleams  ofgenerofity  which 
illumine  and  recommend  the  ml  Senfuality  is 
clothed  with  the  fpecious  coloring  of  fociality,  of 
pleafure  communicated  as  well  as  received,  of  jo- 
cularity and  mirth,  of  freedom,  and  contempt  of 
iervile  reftraint.  OpprefTion  atxl  tyranny  are 
prefented  to  the  mind  under  the  appearance  of 
dignity,  of  a  high  Cen^e  of  honor,  a  noble  ambi- 
tion, attachment  to  party,  nay,  even  of  a  love 
of  juftice.  Without  thefe  fictitious  images,  the 
fenfualift  would  appear  tohimfelf  ajs  the  rnoftcon- 


(     1*4     ) 

temptible,  and  the  oppreflbr  asthemoft  odious,  of 
mankind. 

Bat,  why  multiply  arguments  in  a  matter  where 
a  m 3 neat's  feeling  is  more  decifive  than  an  age 
of  reafoning  ?  Had  you  ever  a  faithful  friend, 
into  whofe  bofooi  you  poared  all  the  fe-:rets  of 
your  heart — a  parent,  whofe  burden  of  years 
you  lightened,  whofe  tottering  limbs  you  fupport- 
ed — a  child,  whole  affiduous  duty,  whofe  budding 
virtues,  fweetened  all  your  cares  of  the  prefent, 
ani  brightened  all  your  hopes  of  the  future — did 
ever  the  fyoipataetic  gam  (tart  in  your  eye  at  the 
fight  of  mifery — did  ever  your  hands  ftretch  forth 
the  unexpected  relief,  and  difpel  the  gloom  that 
hangs  on  the  brow  of  woe,  as  the  fun,  burfting 
through  the  clouds,  renews  the  face  of  nature — 
did  you  ever  difcharge  an  important  truft  with 
dignity,  difintereftednefs,  and  honor,  and  fpread 
peace  and  joy  among  your  fellow  men,  while  the 
ear  when  it  heard  you  hie/fed  you,  end  the  eye  when 
it  Jaw  you  gave  witnefs  to  you*- — fay  what  delight 
thefe  recollections  afford— would  you  exchange 
them  for  a  life-time  of  the  moft  refined  fenfuality 
.—for  Peruvian  treafum— or  Afiatic  power? 


•  Job,  x»Ix,  IJ. 


(  1$  ) 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  dignity  of  human 
nature  con  fills  not  in  the  greatneis  of  men's  abi- 
lities, wealth,  or  dominion,  but  in  expanfion, 
and  benignity  of  foul ;  that  the  former  are  only 
means  of  promoting,  the  purpofes  of  the  latter, 
andligns  that  their  poffefTors  are  particularly  cal- 
led, by  Divine  appointment,  to  generous  and 
elevated  action  ;  that  one,  whopcfiefles  all  thefe 
advantages,  may  be  more  contemptible  than  thof'e, 
who,  though  devoid  of  them,  have  the  heart 
which  could  apply  them  to  their  properends  ;  and 
that  one  firm  purpofe  of  doing  good  will  adorn  a 
character  more  than  the  accutdt  underflandingr 
the  molt  opulent  fortune,  or  the  moll  exalted 
rank,  unaccompanied  with  a  virtuous  difpofition. 
Hence,  to  be  filled  with  pride  and  contempt  of 
thofe  below  us,  on  account  of  our  talents,  or  ex- 
ternal circumflances,  without  any  regard  to  the 
right  application  of  them,  is  both  to  a£t  unjuftly,. 
by  a*ftingincoiifiItentiy  with  the  character  of  mem- 
bers of  the  community,  and  ufurping  the  rights 
which  belong  to  it  alone,  and  to  overturn  the  ba- 
ds on  which  true  (uperiority  muff  ever  reft.  It 
is  to  content  ourlelves  with  the  ihadow^  without 
the  fubftance,  of  greatnefs;  and,  while  God  and 
men  unite  in  calling  us  to  a  pre-eminence  and 
happinefs  which  neither  time,  nor  fortune^  nor 


(    '66    ) 

death,  can  remove,  to  defcend  to  the  moft  con- 
temptible of  all  conditions,  by  perverting  the 
moil  fplendid  powers,  and  the  richeft  opportuni- 
ties— to  embrace  the  hideous  form  of  mifery 
while  celeiiial  felicity  courts  us — to  change  a  fer- 
tile £eld  into  a  barren  heath — to  dwell  in  a  dun- 
geon while  we  may  walk  in  the  moft  refplendent 
day.  In  a  word,  it  k  the  duty  of  thofe  who  are 
raifed  to  the  higher  (Nations  of  life,  poflefled  of 
the  gifts  cf  fortune,  or  endowed  with  fuperior 
abilities — to  maintain  jufrice,  order  and  peace, 
in  fociety ;  to  ftudy  and  purfue  the  public  good  ; 
to  relieve  diftrefs,  to  encourage  induftry,  to  re* 
ward  merit,  to  exercife  condefcenfion  and  affa- 
bility towards  their  inferiors;  to  cultivate  and 
extend  uieful  and  elegant  knowledge  ;  to  clta- 
blifh,  and  inculcate,  the  grand  principles  of  mo- 
rality and  religion,  to  enlighten,  humanife,  and 
improve  mankind,  and  to  lead  them  to  virtue  and 
happinefs. 

Thofe  who  employ  in  this  manner  the  oppor- 
tunities and  talents  with  which  they  are  furniihed 
by  Divine  Providence,  are  entitled  to  the  higheft 
veneration  of  mankind.  It  is,  then,  that  nobi- 
lity, illuftrious  itation,  or  diflinguifhed  parts,  ap- 
pear in  their  full  fplen dor,  and  exhibit  their  pof- 
ieffors  as  a  fpecies  of  divinities  upon  earth,  who, 


(     '6/     ) 

bearing  the  refemblance  of  God  as  far  as  human 
nature  will  permit,  fhare  alfo  his  felicity,  and 
claim  the  homage  of  the  world.  Let  them  be 
difplayed  as  the  inftruments  of  beneficence,  they 
will  reign  with  an  irreliflible  and  permanent  do- 
minion, which  neither  envy,  nor  malice,  nor 
faction,  nor  tumult,  will  be  able  to  overturn  ;  for 
it  is  founded  in  the  hearts  of  men  who,  feeling, 
and  rejoicing  in,  its  blil&ful  influences,  muft  ceafe 
to  love  themfelves,  before  they  can  wiili  to  with- 
draw their  refpecl  and  obedience. 

But,  when  riches  are  only  the  fund  of  a  fordid 
avarice,  or  the  fountain  of  licentiouinefs  and  pro- 
fligacy ;  when  wifdom  is  perverted  into  craft, 
and  abilities  transformed  into  the  rainifters  of  ca- 
bal and  intrigue,  of  deception  and  ignoble  policy, 
eftablifh,  uphold,  or  extend,  civil  or  religious 
defpotifm  ;  when  refplendent  genius  is  employed 
in  rebellion  againft  God,  and  in  the  corruption  of 
men,  by  propagating  irreligion  and  immorality; 
when  pre-eminence  and  authority  are,  in  civil 
life,  uied  as  the  inftruments  of  pride,  injuftice, 
oppreflion,  and  cruelty,  or  fupreme  power,  im- 
pelled by  infatiable  ambition,  deluges  the  earth 
with  blood,  and  fpreads  devaftation  and  mifery 
through  the  habitations  of  men — reafon  eafily  pe- 
netrates the  falfe  glitter  that  furrounds  them, 


(     i68    ) 

and  perceives  their  deformity  and  blacknefs.  She 
declares  their  luftre  to  refemble  that  of  thofe 
noxious  vapours,  which,  rifing  from  the  earth, 
are  kindled  into  a  flam  in  the  fky;  and  terminate 
in  noife  and  deftruction  ;  while  thofe  who  apply 
their  talents,  their  riches,  or  power,  to  the  be- 
neficent ends  for  which  they  are  deitined,  are  like 
that  trlorious  luminary  in  the  heavens,  which 
fhines  with  a  conftant  and  falutary  light. 

Thou  proud  infolent  mortal  !  who  lookeft  down 
from  thy  lofty  ftation  on  thy  brethren  of  men, 
and  imagineft  them  only  formed  to  bring  their 
gifts  to  thy  altar,  and  to  bend  before  thee  with 
fervile  homage,  know  that  thy  elevation  only 
renders  thee  more  confpicuoully  contemptible ! 
Confider  that,  mould  thofe,  whom  thou  fo  info- 
lently  defpifeft,  adopt  thy  principles,  and  burft 
the  bands  of  foci  al  union  by  which  alone  they  are 
made  thy  dependents,  the  power  is  theirs,  and 
thine  only  the  fhadow  and  the  phantom.  Should 
they  only  withdraw  their  fupport  without  inflict- 
ing any  pofitive  evil,  thou  woukift  precipitately 
fink  into  a  degradation  lower  than  that  of  the 
meaneft  laborer.  Lefs  inured  to  want,  thou 
wouldft  be  lefs  able  to  provide  for  its  fupply,  and 
have  lefs  reafon  to  expect  it  from  the  beivgnity 
of  others.     Coniider   that,  even  in  thy  pre  lent 


(     i  «9     ) 

elevation,  thon  art  really  more  dependent  than 
the  mod:  ignoble  of  the  fons  of  men.  If  he  is 
lead  dependent  who  Hands  leaft  in  need  of  others, 
he  is  furely  moft  dependent  who- ftands  m oft  in 
need  of  them.  With  our  rank,  our  necellities, 
our  demands,  our  cares,  increafe.  The  links 
by  which  we  are  joined  to  our  fellow  men  are 
multiplied,  and  the  very  circumftance  which  en- 
larges our  influence  diminifhes  our  internal 
ftrencrth.  He,  therefore,  who  has  the  preatefl: 
number  of  dependents,  has  only  the  greatefl  num- 
ber of  thofe  to  whom  he  is  indebted  for  confide- 
ration  and  power.  The  more  lofty  and  fpacious 
the  edifice  is,  with  the  greater  precipitation,  if 
its  pillars  are  fapped,  does  it  rufh  into  ruin.  Learn 
then  to  feek  thy  importance  and  dignity,  where 
only  thou  wilt  find  them,  by  discharging  every 
duty  which  thy  ftation  requires,  and  by  diffufing, 
by  thy  affability  and  beneficence,  happinefs  among 
mankind.  Relinquiming  the  phantoms  of  pride 
enjoy  the  fubftantial pre-eminence  of  virtue. 

But  ye  !  who  employ  your  diftinguifned  abili- 
ties, or  exalted  power,  for  thepurpofes  for  which 
Providence  has  beftowed  them,  fear  not  that  any 
portion  of  that  refpeft,  obedience,  and  honor, 
to  which  you  are  entitled,  will  be  withdrawn* 
Goodnefs,  moving  in  an  elevated  fphere,  and 
P 


(      '70     ) 

guided  by  diftinguifhed  wifdom,  fhines  with  fuch 
an  amiable  luftre,  polfefTes  fuch  a  commanding  in- 
fluence, and  is  fo  irrefutably  attractive,  that  me 
reigns  over  the  hearts  of  men,  and  is  often  con- 
ftrained  to  bluih  at  the  homage  fhe  receives,  be- 
caufe  it  approaches  adoration.  Power  may  inti- 
midate, fplendour  may  dazzle,  genius  may  fur- 
prife  and  delight,  but  goodnefs  alone  can  captivate 
the  heart  i 


C    *7*     ) 


CHAPTER       VI 


duties  common  to  ALL  with  regard  to  the  use  of  tfcir 

OPPORTUNITIES  and  TALENTS. 


Wi 


HOEVER  attentively  examines  the  human 
conftitution  will  diicover  in  it  feveralinconfiften- 
cies  not  £o  eadly  accounted  for.  Thus,  mankind 
have  a  ftrong  propensity  to  fociety,  and  are  mife- 
rable  without  it ;  yet  in  fociety  they  are  prone  to 
indulge  the  mod  unfocial  difpolitions.  Nature  con . 
ftantly  draws  them  to  their  fpecies>  and  points  out 
their  (weeteft  enjoyments,  as  iblely  derivable  from 
this  fource;  yet  the  felfiih  part  of  our  frame,  coun- 
teracting this  dictate  of  nature,  corrupts  the  grand 
ftreamsof  happinefs,  by  turning  them  into  its  own 
channel,  and,  inflead  of  allowing  the  individual  to 
act  as  a  member  of  the  focialbody,  and  to  receive 
from  this  capacity  his  higheft  dignity  and  enjoy- 
ment, endeavours  to  render  fociety  fubfervient  to 
the  individual.  There  is  in  all  men  a  wonderful 
P    2 


fondnefs  of  independence,  and  a  no  !efs  forprifmg 
deiire  of  the  ferviee  and  reipecl  of  others.  1  his  is, 
in  fa£l,  to  j  oin  the  greateft  con  traditions,  to  force  in- 
to union  things  absolutely  incompatible  ;  for  inde- 
lence  can  only  be  fecured,  by  an  entire  iepa- 
ration  from  mankind,  by  relinquishing  every  claim 
to  their  good  offices  and  regards,  by  renouncing 
y   locial  enjoyment,   and  by  deriving   happi- 
nefs  from  the  (lores  of  felf.     As  foon  as  man  en- 
ters into  the  focial  circle,  and  fliares  its  beneficial 
influences,  he   relinquiihes  his  Separate  exigence, 
and,  forming  a  part  of  a  fyftem,  is  limited  by  the 
relations  which  he  bears  to  the  other  parts,  and 
to  the   whole,  becomes  bound  to   contribute  to. 
their  fupport  and  perfection,  according  to  the  flip- 
port  and  benefit  which   he    receives  from  them, 
and  is  required  to  exert  a  beneficial  activity  pro- 
portioned to  the  influence  he  pofTefTes.     Whoever 
with-holds  from  the  general  good  any  portion  of 
ufeful  effort  he  is  able  to  bellow,  is  unfaithful  to 
the   conditions,  on  which  he   enjoys  the  benefits 
of  fociety,   and  violates  that  equality  of  obligation 
which  fubfifts  among  all  mankind.     He  alio  fruf- 
trates,  as  far  as  lies  in  his  power.,  that  plan  of  Di- 
vine wifdom,  whereby  the  general  felicity  is   in- 
tended.    For  it  is  certain  that  the  Univerfal  Pa- 
rent has  diflributed  among  men  fuch  a  portion  of 
abilities  and  powers,  as,   duly  cultivated  and  im» 


(     '73     ) 

proved,  would  render  the  condition  of  all  com- 
fortable, in  every  refpecr,  and  happy.  In  the 
pre  Cent  ftate  of  fociety,  fome  are,  indeed,  over- 
burthened  with  labour,  and  enjoy  but  a  fmall  de- 
gree of  convenience;  while  others  loiter  in  indo- 
lence, and  confume  the  fruits  of  induftry.  This, 
however,  could  never  be  the  cafe,  did  every  one 
cultivate  with  diligence  his  peculiar  talents,  and 
difcharge  the  duties  of  his  peculiar  ftatiori^  It  is 
the  neglect  of  this  alone  that  makes  it  necellary  to 
overload  fome,  in  order  to  fupport  that  part  of 
the  common  burden,  from  which  others  have 
treacher.ou.fi  y  withdrawn  tbemfelves* 

Hence  the  principle  of  equality,  above  illuftrat* 
ed,  requires  not  only  that  all  men  fhould  religi- 
oufly  regard  the  rights  of  others,  but  that  they 
mould  exert  themfelves,  to-  the  utmoft  of  their 
ability,  for  rhe  common,  benefit..  Whoever  re- 
jects this  reqnilition  defcends  below  the  rank  of 
a  member  of  fociety,  and,  inftead  of  riling,  as  is 
fooliihly  fuppofed,  above  the  reft  of  mankind,  by 
a  life  of  idlenefs  and  diflipation,  degrades  himfelf 
to  the  condition  of  a  begger,  who  lives  on  the  la- 
bour of  others,  without  making  any  j-u£L. return 
for  it.  For,  however  ftrange  it  may  found,  it  i«_ 
undoubted,  that  fociety  has  a  right  to  the  beft 
exertion  of- all  its  members,  of  the  higheft  as  weli 
P   3 


(     174     ) 

as  of  the  loweft,  of  the  mod  opulent  as  well  as   of 
the  pooreft,  for  the  common  good. 

The  queftion  is  not,  what  advantage  every  in- 
dividual is  content  to  reap  from  his  own  powers 
aud  opportunities,  but  what  degree  of  general  u- 
tilitv  he  can  effectuate.  Thefe  powers  have  not 
been  beftowed  on  -him,  by  their  divine  author, 
folely  for  his  own  ufe,  but  chiefly  for  the  benefit 
of  the  human  race,  to  whofe  happinefs  he  is  def- 
tined  to  contribute.  This  proper  exercife  of  the 
powers  of  every  individual  all  the  other  members 
of  fociety  have  a  right  to  demand,  on  fair  and 
equal  terms.  The  equivalent  every  individual  ob- 
tains by  the  advantages  and  comforts  which  he 
receives  from  focial  life,  and  Hill  more  by  that  fu- 
perfluity  which  enables  any  one  to  live  in  floth. 
He  is  a  debtor  to  the  grand  community  of  man- 
kind, and  his  creditors  can  call  him  to  repay. 

It  is  true  that,  fince  it  is  fo  difficult  to  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  every  one's  capacity,  and  the 
exad  meafure  of  the  focial  advantages  he  enjoys, 
no  precife  claim  can  be  eilabliilied  in  every  parti- 
cular cafe.  But,  the  general  obligation  remains 
equally  ilrong  on  all,  and  none  can  wilfully  vio- 
late it  without  incurring  the  blame  of  his  own 
mind;  and  the  diipleafure  of  ths  author  of  his  ex- 


(     '75     ) 

iftence.  The  principle,  therefore,  on  which  fome 
ancient  legiflators  prohibited  any  citizen,  of  what- 
ever condition  or  rank,  from  living  in  idlenefs, 
was  perfectly  juft  in  itfelf,  although  the  execution 
of  any  law  grounded  upon  it  muft  ever  be  ex- 
tremely difficult,  and  might  occafion  greater  in- 
conveniences than  thofe  which  it  mould  be  intend- 
ed to  obviate. 

As  indolence,  and  the  neglect  of  opportunities 
of  utility,  are  highly  unjuft,  fo  they  are  extreme- 
ly contemptible.  For,  what  chara&er  can  be 
more  the  object  of  contempt,  than  that  of  a  per- 
fon  who,  though  endowed  with  active  powers, 
and  furniihed  with  ample  opportunities  of  benefit- 
ing that  particular  fociety  to  which  he  belongs, 
and  from  which  he  receives  conftant  defence  and 
protection,  yet  lives  on  the  labour  either  of  his 
predeceflors  or  contemporaries,  without  leftifying 
any  approbation  of  thtir  induftry,  by  which  he 
fubfifts,  or  making  any  efforts  to  imitate  their 
laudable  example  ?  What  can  degrade  a  man 
more  in  his  own  eyes,  than  the  confideration  that 
he  has  done  nothing  to  benefit  his  friends,  to  o- 
bl;ge  his  neighbours,  to  educate  and  eftabliih  his 
children,  or  to  promote  the  intereft  and  honour 
of  his  country  ;  that  he  has  buried  his  talents,  de- 
feated the  end  of  Providence  in  beftowing  them, 


f     n6     ) 

and  that,  when  he  is  cut  off  by  death,  the  world 
will  be  delivered  from  an  unnecelTary  burden,  from 
a  putrid  excrefcence  ? 


On  the  other  hand,  what  can  convey,  to  any 
perfon,  a  higher  idea  of  his  own  worth  and  im- 
portance,  than  the  reflection  that,  though  but  an 
individual  endowed  with  oneclafs  of  abilities,  yet, 
by  their  improvement,  he  not  only  enlarges  his 
own  enjoyments,  but  diffufes  around  him  the  moft 
joyous  influences,  and  promotes  the  welfare  of 
the  whole  human  race  ;  that,  though  retired  from 
public  view,  he  appears  in  the  uleful  productions 
of  his  application  and  genius  ;  that,  though  infirm 
in  body,  he  renders,  by  his  inventions,  the  labour 
of  the  ilrong  and  hardy  both  more  eafy  to  them- 
f elves,  and  more  beneficial  to  others;  and  that, 
though  devoid  of  public  authority,  he  hrength- 
ens  the  politicaitanion,  and  advances  public  order 
by  the  jufl  principles  which  he  eftabJiihes  and  elu- 
cidates ;  that,   taking  another  view   of  the  cafe, 
though  ignorant  and  illiterate,  yet  he  contributes, 
by  his  toil   and  dexterity,  to  the  instruction   mid 
improvement  of  mankind,  while  he  provides  fuf- 
tenance  and  leifure  for  thofe  who  are  endowed 
with  genius  and  learning,   or  placed  in   thofe  lla- 
tions  where  plans  of  general  welfare  can  be  belli 
c       'Tred,  and  propoied  with  the  greatefl  nro£. 


(     '77     ) 

peels  of  fuccefs?  In  fine,  it  is  an  exalting  confider- 
ation,  that,  however  obfcure  a  perfon  is  in  him-. 
felf,  hz  is  an  inftrument  in  the  hand  of  Providence 
for  communicating  to  mankind,  not  only  the  ne- 
cefTaries  of  life,  but  alfo  its  higheft  ornaments 
and  delights,  and  even  of  raifmg  their  views  a* 
bove  this  terre  final  abode,  and  directing  them  to 
a  ftatc  of  endlefs  felicity,  the  certainty  of  which 
cannot  fail  to  produce  the  moil  falutary  effects  on 
every  part  of  their  conduct.  No  perfon  is  fo  mean, 
and  iniigniiicant,  as  not  to  affect  fome  part,  of  the 
community.  In  a  grand  piece  of  machinery,  the 
frnailer  wheels  and  pins,  though  lefs  obfervable, 
are  not  on  that  account  lefs  necefTary  than  others 
to  the  juit  motion  and  effect  of  the  whole.  In  like 
manner,  the  conduct  of  the  inferior  members  of 
fociety  not  only  airl'cts  their  own  happinefs,  or 
that  of  their  immediate  connections,  but  diffui'es 
its  influence,  though  in  a  lefs  perceptible  manner 
than  that  of  the  higher  ranks,  through  the  whole 
ibcial  body.  Nay,  I  may  aflert  that,  as  thefe 
compofe  the  greater  part  of  the  community,  their 
ufefui  induftry  is  (till  more  req.uifite  to  the  general, 
happinefs,  and  that  the  meaneft  labourer,  who 
diligently  and  honefUy  exerts  hiraielf  in  his  fphere, 
is  entitled  to  mare,  with  the  moil  exalted  of  the 
fons  of  men,  the  glorious  appellation  of  the  friend 
of  mankind,  and  of  the.  approved  of  Gcd!  Should 


f  17*  J 

any  whom  fortune  deprefTed,  orinfolence  laughs  to 
fcorn,  butwhofe  foul, rifing  above  hisfituation,  feels 
the  intrinfic  dignity  of  man,  and  laments  the  nar- 
rownefs  of  his  terreftrial  fphere,  caft  his  eye  on 
thefe pages,  let  him  be  comforted  and  ftrengthen- 
ed  by  the  reflections  above  mentioned.  There  is 
fomething  in  ths  idea  that  exalts  the  mind,  that 
kindles  the  deiire  of  ufefulnefs,  that  ronfes  activi- 
ty, and  puts  every  faculty  in  motion.  When  we 
confider  it,  we  feem  defirous  of  breaking  the  in- 
glorious chains  of  indolence,  and  pant  for  fome 
worthy  object,  fome  important  purfuit,  to  exerciie- 
the  generous  energies  of  the  foul  I 

If  the  confederation  of  the  importance  of  the 
meaneft  member  of  fociety  ihould  prove  a  itrong 
argument  to  ufeful  diligence,  how  much  greater 
force  muft  this  argument  acquire  with  regard  to 
thofe  whom  fortune  and  rank  particularly  diftin- 
guiih.  Their  influence,  whether  good  or  bad, 
is  very  extenfive.  Firft  communicated  to  nume- 
rous connections  and  dependents,  it  is  conveyed 
through  them  to  other  contiguous  relations,  till 
it  reach  at  laft  the  extremities  of  the  focial  fyfteni. 
Were  this  influence  always  of  a  beneficial  nature, 
fociety  would  feel  its  falutary  effects  through  all 
its  frame,  and,  inftead  of  that  diftempered  and 
Reformed  face  which  it  fo  frequently  wears,  would 


C     ^79     ) 

afTume  the  mod  healthy  and  fmiling  afpecT.  The 
fac-e  of  nature,  long  hid  in  fog,  or  ravaged  by 
tempeiis,  receives  not  a  more  delightful  transfor- 
mation from  the  returning  fun,  than  fociety 
would  receive  from  thofe  benignant  lights  which 
thus  illumined  and  invigorated  it. 

In  what  light,  then,  miift  thofe  perfons  appear, 
who,  becaufe  their  external  cfrcumftance's  free 
them  from  the  neceinty  of  labouring  for  their  fub- 
fiftence,  imagine  themfelves  exempted  from  eve- 
ry fpecies  of  ufeful  exertion  ;  who,  becaufe  they 
are  provided  with  the  abundant  fupply  of  every 
corporeal  want,  think  themfelves  under  no  obli- 
gation to  improve  their  minds,  or  to  engage  in 
any  purfuit  conducive  to  the  common  welfare ; 
who  either  yawn  away  the*ir  time  in  the  moft  le- 
thargic indolence,  or  devote  it  to  the  moft  infigni- 
ficant,  frivolous,  or  vicious  enjoyments;  who 
wafte  ingenuity  in  mere  oftentation,  degrade  rea- 
fon  to  purvey  for  appetite,  and  make  recreation 
their  ftudy,  and  amufement  their  bufinefs — in  a 
word,  whofe  whole  life  is  either  a  blank,  or  aper- 
verfion  of  exiftnece.  The  phantom  of  pleafure, 
like  an  ignis  fatuus,  inftantly  difappears,  when 
they  think  they  can  felze  it.  The  fame  infipid 
round  is  run  over  a  thoufand  times.  The  fenfes 
sre  jaded,  the   appetites  cloyed.      Tired   at   laft 


(      i»o     ) 

with  the  tedious  purfuit,  thofe  votaries  of  plea- 
fure,  like  the  top  that  has  long  been  laihed,  dofe 
in  the  arms  of  indolence.  When  they  wake  at 
times  from  their  inlenfibility,  their  minds  are 
"haunted  with  all  the  chimeras,  all  the  monfters 
of  vapour  and  fpleen,  which  often  drive  them  to 
bnrft,  by  death,  the  ponderous  fetters  with  which 
they  are  loaded. 

I  will  not  afiTert,  that  all  who  live  in  this  man- 
ner are  fenfible  of  the  criminality  of  their  con- 
duel,  and  perceive  that,  however  averfe  from 
injuftice,  breach  of  truft,  and  cruelty  in  their 
dealings  with  particular  perfons,  they  yet  involve 
themfelves,  by  this  negative  vice,  this  neglect  of 
the  due  improvement  of  their  talents  and  oppor- 
tunities in  thefe  crimes  with  refpect  to  their  i'pe- 
cies  in  general.  No;  I  am  convinced  that,  if 
they  clearly  perceived  the  tendency  of  their  con- 
duel,  many  of  them,  at  leaft,  would  review  it 
with  f'orrow  and  difguft.  Ignorance,  and  wrong 
habits  contracted  in  early  lite,  mere  than  any 
vicious  difpofuion,  are  the  caufes  of  a  courfe  of 
action  i'o  difgraceful  and  unhappy  to  themfelves, 
and  fo  detrimental  to  fociety. 

This  reflection,  however,  If  it  diminifn   their 
'  criminality,  augments  the  folly  of  neglecting  to 


(  1*1  ) 

cultivate  thofe  rational  faculties,  which  Would 
afford  themjuft  notions  of  their  duty,  and  difclofe 
an  elevated  region  of  purfuit  and  happinefs.  For, 
if  they  rightly  apprehended  the  relation  in  whick 
all  the  members  of  fociety  ftand  to  each  other, 
they  would  perceive  that  it  is  not  only  the  rapa- 
cious invader,  or  the  fecret  purloiner,  of  proper- 
ty, who  muft  be  reputed  injurious,  but  alfo  the 
indolent  and  the  diffipated,  who  deprives  his  fel- 
low men  of  any  benefit  which  he  is  called  to  be- 
flow.  They  would  fee  that  they  are  under  obli- 
gations, not  only  to  abftain  from  pofitive  violation^ 
of  juftice,  but  alfo  to  difcharge  many  duties  of 
diftinguifhed  utility  to  mankind.  To  thefe  they 
would  acknowledge  themfelves  particularly  call- 
ed by  the  appointment  of  Heaven-  Relieved 
from  the  neceflity  of  providing  for  their  corpo- 
real wants,  their  minds  are  furnifhed  with  great- 
er freedom  for  the  exercife  of  its  nobler  powers, 
and  with  a  more  extenfive  range  for  the  difcove- 
ry  and  profecution  of  fchemes  of  public  good. 
And  as  thofe  clouds  that  obfeure  their  underftand- 
ing  began  to  remove,  an  hundred  untafledfprings 
of  felicity  would  open  on  their  hearts.  For,  if 
every  perfon  of  fortune  and  rank  employed  his 
moft  active  endeavors  to  excite  and  maintain  a 
fpirit  of  induftry  and  virtue  among  his  dependents, 
his    neighbors,   and  fellow-citizens,    he   would 


(  I<&  ) 

find  his  time  and  attention  fo  happily  engaged, 
that  he  would  furvey  with  contempt  his  former 
pleafures  ;  he  would  feem  to  breathe  a  purer  air, 
and  to  live  in  a  region  of  perpetual  funfhine, 
while  the  vapours  of  low  ambition  and  of  fenfual 
indulgence  rolled  below  his  feet ! 

Man  can  only  be  happy  in  as  far  as  his  powers 
are  duly  exercifed  ;  and  thofe  powers,  which  are 
the  mod  elevated  and  capacious,  afFord  the  great- 
eft  fum  of  felicity-  The  fame  means,  therefore, 
which  render  any  man  moffc  highly  beneficial  to 
others,  alfo  increafe  the  fum  of  his  own  enjoy- 
ments, and  fuperadd  to  them  that  moft  delightful 
of  all  fatisfaclions — the  confci«ufnefs  of  having 
difcharged,  to  the  utmoft  of  his  power,  his  duty 
as  a  member  of  the  community,  and  fulfilled  the 
intention  of  his  Creator  in  fending  him  into  the 
world.  The  neglecl:  of  the  due  improvement  of 
any  power,  or  of  any  opportunity  of  honorable 
afrion,  detracts  juft  fo  much  from  perfonal  enjoy- 
ment. As  want  of  circulation  corrupts  the  air, 
and  ftagnation  the  water,  fo,  indolence  fuperin- 
duces  a  torpor  on  the  mind,  which  unfits  it  even, 
for  the  more  refined  pleafures  of  fenfe,  and  de- 
prives it  of  that  great  fweetener  of  every  enjoy- 
ment, the  refle&ion  that  it  is  the  produce  of  our 
own  exertions;  and  the  natural  recompenfe  of 


(     «83     ) 

merit.     With  regard  to  diftinction,  acquired  by 
fuccefsful  exertions  of  abilities,  it  is  certain,  that 
the  fame  obligation  which  demanded  the  firit  dif- 
.play  of  them,  requires  their  continuance  while 
any  benefit  can  thence  refult  to  mankind,  and  their 
pofleflbrs  are  able  to  confer  it.     He  who  has  al- 
ready exerted  powers,  by  which  the  aggregate  of 
common   good  has  been  increafed,  has  pledged 
himfelf  to  a  courie  of  dittinguifhed  utility,  and,  if 
he  relaxes  or  ceales  his  efforts,  while  his  faculties 
are  (till  vigorous,  is  more  culpable  than  if  he  had 
never  entered  on  the  honorable  career;    becaufe 
practice  procures  facility,  and  fuccefs  mould  ani- 
mate to  frefh  enterprife.    If  felfifh  ambition  mould, 
as  is  in  this  cafe  moft  probable,  be  the  fole  motive 
to  action,  let  it  be  confidered,  that  it  is  perhaps 
more  difficult  to  preferve  than  to  purchafe  reputa- 
tion and  homage.     The  enligns  of  honor  attract 
the  public  eye  ;    elevation  places  men  in  a  more 
confpicuous  light,  where  every  defect,  as  well  as 
evrery  virtue,  is  more  clearly  difcerned,  and  more 
nicely  fcrutinized.     If  thofe,  therefore,  who  are 
thus  diftinguiihed,  are  not  able  to  fupport  their 
fituation  with  dignity,  their  difgrace  will,  from 
the  difappointed  expectations  of  mankind,  be  more 
humiliating,  and  the  contempt  which  they  incur 
more  general.     Envy  will  magnify  every  fault, 
annihilate  every  virtue,   and  lafh  them  with  the 


(     18-4     ) 


laurels  which  fhe  has  torn  from  their  brows.    Hap- 
py for   themfelves,    and    happy   for   the   world, 
whofeinterefts  are  always  hurt  by  the  degradati- 
on of  merit,  if  they  had  never  rifen  above  the 
vulgar  level  1 


(      i«5    ) 

CHAPTER     VII. 

Conclusion. 


T, 


HE  view  of  fociety,  and  of  the  principles  on 
which  it  is  founded,  difclofed  in  this  Eflay,  evinces 
the  obligation  of  all   its  members,  of  whatever 
rank  or  defeription,  to  contribute  their  molt  aclive 
and  honeft  endeavors  for  the  common  good.    In- 
deed this  obligation  is  fufficiently  inculcated  on  the 
lower  claffes,    by  the  neceflity  of    laboring  for 
their  daily  fubfiftence,  and  by  the  dreadful  confe- 
rences which  idlenefs  produces  to  them  and  their 
families.     With  regard  to  thefe,  it  is,  therefore, 
lefs  neceflTary  to  unfold  the  full  force  of  this  obli- 
gation, than  with  refpecl  to  thofe  whofe  eafy  cir- 
cumftances,  feeming  to  render  them  independent 
of  their  fellow  men,  (eem  alfo  to  exempt  them 
from  every  debt  beyond  the  limits  of  itrict  jufHce. 
This  independence  we  have  fhewn  to  be  purely 
imaginary,  and  utterly  incompatible  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  focial  union.     The  chain  of  dependence 
O  3 


(     1 86    ) 

runs   equally  through   all  the  orders  of  fociety,  * 
and  binds  every  individual  in  thefe  orders.     W  hiic 
it  excludes   the   extravagant   claims  of  feif-love, 
and  fubjects  men  to  more  generous  and  falutary 
principle^  it  eftablifhes  at  the  fame  time  a  fyftem 
which,  if  univerfally  obferved,  would  fully  fecure 
the  moft  effential  interefls  of  each  individual,  by 
fettling  them   on  the  broad  and  immoveable  bafis 
of  general  welfare.     Fur,   did  the  rich   employ 
their  wealth  to  lupply  the  wants  of  the  poor;  the 
poor,  their  labor  to  adminifter  to  the   eafe  and 
convenience  of  the  rich  ;  the  great,  their  power 
and  authority  to  protect  the  weak  and  defencelefs; 
the   wife,  the  ingenious,  and  the   learned,  their 
abilities  to  inftruct  and  counfel  the  ignorant  and 
illiterate  ;  did  every  one,  in  iliort,  impart  to  his 
fellow  men  a  portion  of  the  fruits  of  his  talents 
and   advantages;   it  is  impofhble  that  any  mould 
repine  at  another's  pofTefiing  what  was  employed 
for  his  own  benefit,  nay,   was  made  more  fubfer- 
vienr  to  his  uie,  than  if  he  himfelf  were  the  pro- 
prietor.    For  no  individual  could  fo  perfectly  cul- 
tivate all  the  different  talents,  necefTary  for  his 
fupport  and  welfare,  which  are  diftributed  among 
the  fpecies,  and,  while  fome  particular  one  is  al- 
lotted to  each,  are  all  carried  to  the  higheit  im- 
provement of  which  they  are  fuiceptibk. 


(     '8/     ) 

Thus,  the  principles  of  equality  which  we  have 
eftablilhed,  at  the  fame  time  that  they  reprefs  the 
infolence  of  pride,  the  outrages  of  oppremon,  and 
the  difTipation  of  feufuality,  confirm,  neverthelefs, 
the  necefTity  of  fubordination,  and  the  juft  de- 
mands of  lawful  authority.  They  maintain  in- 
violate every  natural  and  every  civil  diftindtion, 
draw  more  clofely  every  fecial  tie,  and  unite  all 
in  one  harmonious  and  juftly  proportioned  fyftem, 
which  brings  men  together  on  the  even  ground 
of  the  inherent  rights  of  human  nature,  of  reci- 
procal obligation,  and  of  a  common  relation  to 
the  community.  Yet,  for  the  maintenance  of 
this  equality  itfelf,  they  feparate  tfyem  into  dif- 
ferent clafles,  and  in  veil  them  with  different  ca- 
pacities and  offices.  Thus  are  the  poor  and  the 
mean  reconciled  to  their  circumftances,  or  com- 
forted under  them — the  opulent  and  the  power- 
ful are  excited  to  beneficence  and  condefceniion  ; 
the  ingenious  and  acute  are  directed  to  the  bell 
ufe  of  their  abilities  ;  and  all  are  linked  together 
by  the  powerful  ties  of  common  interefts,  and  of 
reciprocal  duty.  Happy  thole,  whofe  fouls  are 
capable  of  rifing  to  fuch  enlarged  views  of  things, 
and  are  animated  by  them  to  a  conduct  worthy  of 
human  nature,  worthy  of  Chriftianity,  which  re- 
prefents  men  to  each  other  as  children  of  one  pa- 
rent, as  members  of  one  family,  as  journeying  to- 


(     iW    ) 

gather  through  the  checkered  fcenes  of  this  tran- 
iitory  world,  towards  a  region  where  all  the 
diftinctions  of  poverty  and  riches,  of  obfcu.rity 
and  fplendor,  of  power  and  meannefs,  ihall  ceafe, 
every  inequality  difappear  ;  where  virtue  alone 
ill  a  1 1  be  exalted,  and  vice  degraded  forever  ! 

It  mud,  indeed,  be  acknowledged,  that  this 
theory  is  too  pure  and  exalted  to  admit  of  a  com- 
plete conformity  of  practice.  But  man  is  quali- 
fied for  endlefs  improvements  in  knowledge  and 
virtue,  and  the  happinefs  which  he  attains  will 
exactly  correfpond  to  the  degrees  of  his  progrefs. 
In  every  art  and  fcience  there  is  an  ideal  model, 
which  can  never  be  reached  even  by  the  raoft  ex- 
act and  .beautiful  execution*  -What  Cicero  ob- 
ferves  with  regard  to  a  perfect  orator,  that  he  had 
never  feen  any  i'peaker  that  could  come  up  to  his 
notions  of  eloquence,  is  not  limited  to  that  art,,., 
but  is  equally  applicable  to  every  other.  It  is, 
however,  to  be  obfcrved,  that  even  the  excellence 
which  is  attained,  is  wholly  referable  to  the  per- 
fect ftandard  previouily  exiting  in  the  artifts 
mind.  In  proportion,  therefore,  as  clear  and 
elevated  ideas  of  excellence  are  entertained  in  re- 
ligion, in  morality,  and  in  politics,  and  action  is 
directed  by  thefe,  human  conduct  and  happinefs 
will  be  improved  and  exalted.     If,  on   the  other 


(     1*9    ) 

hand,  low  and  groveling  ftandards  are  adopted", 
and  principles  are  regulated  by  eftablifhed  prac- 
tice, not  practice  reformed  by  the  genuine  princi. 
pies  of  nature,  mankind  will  continue  to  tread 
in  the  old  and  muddy  path,  and  the  progrefs  of 
the  world  will  be  marked  with  degeneracy  and 
degradation. 

It  is  the  conftant  objection  of  thofe,  who  arc 
either  averfe  from  improvement,  or  too  indolent 
and  too  timid  to  begin  or  advance  it,  that  the  per- 
fection aimed  at  is  too  high  for  human  nature. 
They  thus  employ  the  exiftence  of  abufes  and  er- 
rors as  a  reafon  for  perpetuating  them.  But, 
if  the  fame  reafoning  had  always  been  confidered 
as  juft,  mankind  would,  at  this  day,  dwell  in 
caves,  feed  upon  acorns,  fall  down  before  the 
works  of  their  own  hands,  and  be  bound  in  the 
heavy  chain  of  Heathen  ignorance  and  fuperiti- 
tion.  The  inftitutions  and  refinements  of  civil 
fociety  mull  appear  to  a  favage  as  extravagant 
and  impracticable,  as  the  fineft  theory  of  moral 
fentiment  and  action  appears  to  thofe  whole  fouls 
are  immerfed  in  fenfuality,  or  fettered  by  felf- 
intereft.  The  queftion  is  not,  what  is  the  prc- 
fent  practice  of  mankind,  but  what  they  are  qua- 
lified ultimately  to  attain  ;  not  how  far  any  theo- 
ry is  conformable  to  the  prefent  ftate  of  things, 


(     *9°     ) 

but  how  far  it  is  founded  in  nature,  adapted  to  the 
human  faculties,  and  conducive  to  human  felicity* 

If  the  principles  illuftrated  in  this  EfTay  mould 
be  devoid  of  every  other  recommendation,  they 
have  at  leaft,  that  which  is  no  inconfiderable  one, 
of  being  conformable  to  the  doctrines  of  Chriftia- 
nity*. For,  although  fome  philofophers,  who 
have  pretended  great  zeal  for  the  rights  and  the 
happinefs  of  mankind,  have  manifefted,  at  the 
fame  time,  a  ftrange.  antipathy  to  every  kind  of 
religion,  and  particularly  to  the  Chriftian,  it  will 
be  found,  by  every  impartial  inquirer,  that  the 
religion  of  Jefus  Crjriil  inculcates  and  fanctions 
every  principle  on  which  public  and  private  hap- 
pinefs can  be  built.  It  is  true  that  Chriftianity 
has  frequently  been  moft  fhamefully  corrupted, 
and,  in  that  corrupted  form,  produced  the  moft 
dreadful  calamities.  But,  to  explode  Chriftianity 
on  this  account,  isjuft  asfenfible  as  to  forbid  man- 
kind the  ufe  of  water,  air,  or  fire,  becaufe  thefe 
elements  have  often  been  the  vehicles  of  deftruc- 
tion.  Whoever  attempts  to  erect  any  fyftem  of 
policy  to  the  exclufion  of  religion,  betrays  great 
ignorance  of  human  nature,  and  great  indiffe- 
rence for  human  happinefs.  Man  is  a  religious 
creature,  and  is  drawn  to  his  Creator  by  all   the 

*  Romans,  xii.  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.    zft  Cor.xiL 


(     '9'     ) 

principles  of  his  conftitution — by  the  fenfe  of  his 
imbecility,  by  confcience,  by  gratitude  and  ad- 
miration, and  by  his  reafon  when  duly  improved. 
The  grand  requifite,  then,  is  to  procure  for  him 
a  religion  pure,  fimple,  beneficent,  and  confolo- 
tary.  This  will  be  found  only  in  the  religion  of 
Jefus  Chrift,  as  it  is  exhibited  in  the  facred  wri- 
tings. Here  the  moft  perfect  ftandard  of  duty  is 
erected,  in  order  to  engage  man  to  an  endlefs 
progrefs  in  virtue  ;  a  fufficient  remedy  is  provided 
for  his  deviations  from  it,  when  accompanied 
with  penitence  ;  the  moft  glorious  rewards  are 
offered  to  his  perfevering  endeavors ;  and  the 
llrongeft  fuccours  are  provided  for  his  weaknefs* 
Such  a  religion  powerfully  ftrengthens  every  fa- 
cial and  civil  obligation,  and  prepares  men  for 
heaven,  by  rendering  them  ufeful  on  earth. 


CONTENTS. 


BOOK     I. 

In  what  Senfe  may  all  Men  be /aid  to  be  Equal  P   1 1 

CHAPTER     I. 

Of  Natural  Diverlities  among  Men,  ib. 

CHAPTER     II. 

Of  the  Diftribution  of  Human  Abilities  and  Talents  2£ 

CHAPTER     III. 

Of  the  Mutual  Dependence  of  Mankind,  30 

CHAPTER    IV. 

Final  Caufes  of  the  Variety  of  Human  Talents,  42 

CHAPTER    V. 

The  jufl:  Notion  of  the  Natural  Equality  of  Men  is 
placed  in  Equality  of  Obligation. — The  proper 
Tendency  ol  this  Doctrine,  46 

C  H  A  P  T  E  R    VI. 

Some  Circumftances  of  Equality  not  yet  confidered,  5$ 

BOOK     II. 

What  are  the  Rights  refulting  from  the  Natural 
Equality  of  Men  ?  ^  69 

C  H  A  P  T  E  R    I. 

Of  the  Manner  in  which  we  acquire  our  Notion 
of  Rights,  ib. 

CHAPTER    II. 

The  two  Grand  Divifions  of  Rights  which  flow 
from  the  Natural  Equality  of  Mankind,  75 

CHAPTER     III. 

Of  the   Original  and  Inherent  Rights  of  Human 

Nature,    *"  73 

R 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER     IV. 
The  fame  Subject  continued,  85 

CHAPTER     V. 

That  it  is  the  Intereft  of  Government  to  preferve 
inviolate  the  Rights  of  Liberty,  as  above  ex- 
plained, 103 
CHAPTER     VI. 
Of  Rights  peculiar  to  certain  Stations  and  Abi- 
lities, 107 
CHAPTER     VII. 
General  inferences  from  the  whole  of  this  Book,       1 1 3- 

BOOK    III. 

What  are  the  Duties  refulting  from  the  Equality 
of  Mankind  P  j  1 9 

CHAPTER     I- 

Preliminary  Obfervations,  ib. 

CHAPTER     II. 

All  Men  equally  bound  to  Reflect  the  Primitive 
Rights  of  Human  Nature,  121 

CHAPTER     III. 

The  Duties  of  thofe  who  are  placed  in  the  Inferior 
Stations  of  Life,  or  endowed  with  Inferior  Capa- 
cities and  Powers,  137 

CHAPTER     IV. 
Cautions  to  be  obferved  in  the  Parfuit  of  a  Higher 
and  more  Flourishing  Condition,  148 

CHAPTER     V. 
The  Duties  of  thofe  placed  in  the  Higher  Ranks  of 
Life,  and  endowed  with  Diftinguifhed  Abilities,  154 
CHAPTER     VI. 
Duties  common  to  all,  with  regard  to  the  Ufe  of 
their  Opportunities  and  Talents,  171 

CHAPTER     VII. 
ConcluHon.  1S5 


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